ELEMENTS    OF 
WATER    GAS 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
jVLanufacture  of  vvater  Gas 

By 

J.  STEPHENSON 

11 

Member  of  American  Chemical  Society,  Pacific  Coast  Gas  Association 

Associate  Member  American  Institute  of 

Electrical  Engineers 


FIRST  EDITION 


1916 

THE   STATE   COMPANY, 
COLUMBIA,    S.    C. 


COPYRIGHTED,   1916 
By    J.  STEPHENSON 


PREFACE 

The  object  of  this  work  is  to  briefly  outline  the 
development  of  water  gas  to  its  present  stage, 
and  enable  the  reader  to  grasp  the  fundamental 
principles  which  govern  the  past  and  future 
developments.  It  will  be  observed  that  only 
such  apparatus  has  been  referred  to  that  con- 
stitute an  important  and  established  develop- 
ment of  the  process,  and  the  author  realizes  that 
the  subject  is  far  from  being  exhausted.  The 
work,  however,  is  intended  to  provide  a  stepping 
stone  to  a  later  study,  and  technicalities  have 
been  avoided  as  far  as  possible. 

To  the  reader  interested  in  water  gas  manu- 
facture, it  is  hoped  that  a  perusal  of  this  work 
will  educate  him  in  a  general  way  into  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  process. 

To  the  student  who  contemplates  gas  engi- 
neering as  a  profession,  it  need  hardly  be  said 
is  especially  adapted. 

To  the  salesman  it  will  give  a  brief  outline 
into  the  principles  of  modern  developments,  and 
enable  immediate  comparison  with  his  own  par- 
ticular plant.  349 


6  Contents 

CHAPTEK  IV. 

The  Vertical  Type. 
Williamson's  Generator — Water  Seal  Valve. 

CHAPTER  V. 

Twin  Generator  Systems. 
Convertible  Apparatus — Continuous  Process. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Automatic  Control. 

General    Remarks — Blast    Pressures — Temperature 
Conditions — Advantages — Conclusive  Remarks. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Mechanical  Operation. 
Cam  and  Clutch  Mechanism — Rotary  Valves. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Electrically  Controlled  Process. 
Carburetted  Water  Gas — Blue  Water  Gas. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Hydraulic  and  Air  Systems. 
Hydraulic  Control — Air  Control. 


Contents  7 

CHAPTER  X. 

Construction  Developments. 

Valve  Mechanism — Automatic  Clinkering — Car- 
buretting  Zone — Self-sealing  Cap — Notes  on 
Construction — Excavation — Concrete — B  r  i  c  k- 
work — Columns  and  Girders — Carpentry. 

APPENDIX. 
Tables  and  Factors. 


ELEMENTS  OF  WATER  GAS 


CHAPTER  I. 
EARLY  HISTORY. 

The  origin  of  water  gas  goes  back  to  the  year 
1780,  when  Fontana,  a  French  chemist,  discov- 
ered that  by  passing  steam  through  incandescent 
fuel  containing  carbon,  the  oxygen  of  the  steam 
had  greater  affinity  for  the  carbon  than  its  com- 
bining element  hydrogen,  and  thereby  the  steam 
was  broken  up  as  follows:  C+H2O=H2-|-CO. 
It  was  not,  however,  until  some  50  years  later 
that  this  reaction  was  used  commercially,  when 
Michael  Donavan  distributed  it  for  public  light- 
ing in  Dublin,  Ireland.  Briefly,  this  attempt 
consisted  of  passing  steam  through  coke  heated 
to  redness  in  contact  with  vapors  of  spirits  of 
turpentine,  tar,  coal  naphthalene,  or  other  illum- 
inating agents,  but  did  not,  however,  meet  with 
much  success,  and  little  appears  to  have  been 
done  in  further  developments  until  the  year 
1858,  when  Dr.  J.  M.  Sanders  erected  a  plant  in 
Philadelphia,  to  supply  gas  to  a  certain  Girard 
House. 

In  this  design  of  plant  a  series  of  (L)  shaped 
retorts  1  (Fig.  1)  were  set  in  an  ordinary  coal 
gas  setting,  and  filled  with  charcoal,  and  heated 


10 


Elements  oj  TF 'cuter  Gas 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  11 

externally  by  furnace  2  while  steam  and  melted 
rosin  were  passed  downwards  by  way  of  pipe  3 
through  the  bed  of  fuel,  the  resultant  products 
passing  up  through  the  standpipe  to  an  hy- 
draulic main.  This  process  was  proven  to  be 
about  10  per  cent,  more  expensive  than  coal  gas, 
and  in  due  course  was  abandoned. 

The  next  attempt  worthy  of  note  was  in  1873 
by  the  Allen-Harris  system,  which  consisted  of 
passing  superheated  steam  through  anthracite 
coal  in  an  ordinary  coal  gas  bench,  and  then 
passing  the  water  gas  into  retorts  distilling  coal 
gas  from  bituminous  coal.  In  this  process  it  was 
claimed  that  the  distillation  of  coal  in  an  atmos- 
phere of  water  gas  protected  some  hydrocarbons 
from  decomposition  that  otherwise  broke  down 
into  tar,  and  thereby  increased  the  quantity  of 
gas  to  about  30  per  cent,  without  any  appreci- 
able loss  in  candle  power,  and  a  confirmation  of 
this  claim  appears  to  be  seen  in  the  fact  that 
the  yield  of  tar  was  approximately  two  gallons 
less  per  ton  of  coal  than  in  ordinary  coal  gas 
practice.  The  theoretical  principle  involved  in 
this  process  has  been  the  subject  of  much  discus- 
sion of  recent  years,  but  as  yet  no  design  of  plant 
has  met  with  any  remarkable  success  and  the 
advantage  claimed  can  not  be  accurately  con- 
firmed. 


12  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

The  developments  following  the  Allen-Harris 
system  were  chiefly  for  the  utilization  of  naph- 
thas, obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the  petroleum 
industry,  and  one  of  the  most  interesting  con- 
sisted of  a  bench  of  vertical  retorts  charged  with 
anthracite  coal,  through  which  superheated 
steam  was  passed,  and  a  series  of  horizontal 
retorts  which  were  divided  by  a  partition  which 
extended  nearly  to  the  back  of  the  retort.  In 
the  latter  retorts  oil  was  sprayed  by  means  of 
steam,  and  the  water  gas  from  the  vertical 
retorts  mixed  with  it,  after  which  the  mixture 
traversed  the  bottom  section  from  front  to  back, 
and  the  top  section  from  back  to  front,  and  then 
up  the  standpipe  to  an  hydraulic  main. 

The  retort  processes  were  continued  for  some 
time  in  a  variety  of  ways,  and  the  last  known 
appears  to  have  been  the  Slade  or  Salisbury 
process,  which  was  finally  abandoned  in  favor  of 
the  generator-retort  system. 

In  the  development  of  the  generator-retort 
system  the  most  successful  attempts  were  those 
of  Tessie  Du  Motay  and  Wilkinson.  In  the 
former  apparatus,  blue  gas  was  made  intermit- 
tently in  a  double  generator,  and  stored  in  an 
hydrogen  holder,  from  which  it  was  drawn  and 
passed  through  a  steam  heated  evaporator,  where 
it  took  up  naphtha  vapors.  The  mixture  of 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  13 

gases  were  then  sent  through  externally  heated 
retorts,  the  function  of  which  was  to  fix  into 
permanent  gases. 

The  Wilkinson  apparatus,  whilst  different  in 
construction,  was  practically  the  same  in  prin- 
ciple as  the  former,  and  one  particularly  inter- 
esting feature  in  it  is  that  it  was  the  first  appa- 
ratus on  which  the  down  or  reverse  run  is  known 
to  have  been  used  on  the  generator. 

Various  modifications  of  these  principles  fol- 
lowed, of  which  the  Hanlon-Johnson,  Edgerton, 
Mackensie,  and  Egner  types  were  the  most 
important. 

In  the  first  named,  water  and  oil  gas  were 
made  and  stored  in  separate  holders  and  mixed 
cold,  whilst  in  the  Edgerton,  the  oil  gas  was  pro- 
duced in  vertical  retorts  heated  by  the  producer 
gases  froijn  the  generators,  and  the  gases  sep- 
arately sirred  and  mixed  cold. 

The  Mjfekensie  apparatus  attempted  at  a  con- 
tinuous production  by  carburetting  producer 
gases  with  oil  in  coal  gas  retorts,  and  in  the 
Egner  process  blue  water  gas  was  made  in  gen- 
erators heated  by  air  drawn  through  the  fuel 
l>ed,  and  the  water  gas  carburetted  with  oil  in 
coal  gas  retorts.  These  attempts  were  proved 
unsuccessful,  and  in  due  course  the  generator- 
retort  system  was  finally  abandoned  with  the 


14 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


advent  of  the  internal  combustion  system,  which 
laid  the  foundation  of  modern  water  gas  prac- 
tice. 


The  original  apparatus  for  the  generation  ol 
enriched  water  gas  by  the  internal  combustion 
system  was  invented  during  the  Civil  War,  in 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  15 

1874,  by  Dr.  C.  S.  Lowe,  who  was  then  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  balloons.  The  apparatus, 
which  is  shown  in  Fig.  2,  comprised  a  generator 
1,  and  a  fixing  chamber  2,  and  was  heated  by 
forced  blast  with  secondary  combustion  in  the 
fixing  chamber.  In  the  run  of  gas,  oil  was 
sprayed  into  the  top  of  the  generator,  passed 
through  the  fixing  chamber  to  a  washer,  and 
through  a  boiler  for  the  production  of  steam 
used  in  the  generator.  The  inventor,  in  his 
patent  application,  laid  special  importance  on 
the  advantages  of  vaporizing  oil  in  the  presence 
of  hydrogen,  and  also  claimed  a  reduction  of 
fuel  consumption  by  the  utilization  of  wasted 
gases  from  the  generator  by  the  internal  heating 
of  the  fixing  chamber. 

This  system  was  afterwards  modified  in 
various  ways,  the  most  important  of  which  was 
that  of  Granger  and  Collins,  in  which  the  gen- 
erator was  placed  so  that  the  top  was  level  with 
the  bottom  of  the  fixing  chamber,  or  superheater, 
and  only  a  short,  straight  connection  was 
required.  This  design  met  with  marked  success 
for  several  years,  and  the  advantages  claimed 
were : 

(1)  Convenient  means  of  operation. 

(2)  Reduction  of  ground  area. 

(3)  Free  access  to  fire  for  cleaning. 


16  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

(4)  Minimum  amount  of  heat  lost  by  short 
connection  between  generator  and  super- 
heater. 

Another  modification  was  the  Hanlon-Leadley, 
which  consisted  of  three  generators  connected  to 
two  steam  and  two  gas  superheaters.  The  gen- 
erators were  blasted  in  parallel  and  steam  in 
series,  the  object  of  which  was  to  provide  a  low 
fuel  bed  in  blasting  and  thereby  minimize  the 
percentage  of  carbon  monoxide,  and  a  deep  bed 
in  steaming  to  minimize  the  percentage  of  car- 
bon dioxide  in  the  water  gas.  The  steam  used  in 
the  generators  was  first  passed  through  the 
steam  superheaters,  and  the  oil  gas  and  water 
gas  were  permanently  fixed  by  passing  through 
the  gas  superheaters  in  parallel.  It  may  be 
interesting  to  note  that  this  apparatus  appears 
to  have  been  the  origin  of  modern  twin-generator 
practice  discussed  later  in  this  work. 

In  the  years  following  these  developments  it 
became  necessary  to  use  a  heavier  grade  of  oil, 
and  the  first  important  development  was  made 
by  the  Lowe  apparatus  which  consisted  of  add- 
ing another  superheater  and  increasing  the. 
height  of  the  second  superheater  to  increase  the 
fixing  surface  of  the  gases  and  also  provide  a 
draft  from  the  generator  when  the  charging 
door  was  opened.  The  height  of  the  entire 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  17 

machine  was  also  increased  to  provide  a  deeper 
fuel  bed,  and,  in  about  1890,  means  were  pro- 
vided to  run  the  steam  in  an  upward  and  down- 
ward direction,  after  which  the  developments 
consisted  of  minor  and  mechanical  details. 

With  the  progress  of  the  internal  combustion 
system  it  was  found,  however,  that  only  hard 
coal  or  coke  could  be  used  with  advantage,  and 
many  attempts  have  been  made  to  use  the 
cheaper  soft  or  bituminous  coals,  but  up  to  the 
present  date  this  practice  has  not  met  with  any 
remarkable  success,  although  some  interesting 
plants  have  been  designed  for  the  purpose. 

One  of  the  most  noteworthy  attempts  to-  use 
soft  coal  was  made  by  the  Rose-Hasting  appa- 
ratus, which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  3.  In  this 
design  the  generator  1  is  charged  with  soft  coal 
about  every  50  minutes,  and  carries  a  bed  of 
fuel  approximately  8  feet  deep,  and  the  regen- 
erator 2  is  charged  with  coke  or  hard  coal.  The 
operation  of  this  plant  consists  of  first  blasting 
1  and  2  with  stack  valve  1'  open  for  a  period  of 
5  minutes,  after  which  the  stack  valve  2'  was 
opened  and  1'  closed  for  about  2  minutes,  and 
then  the  stack  valve  3'  opened  and  2'  closed,  dur- 
ing which  time  secondary  air  was  admitted  to  the 
base  of  3  as  required  until  the  end  of  the  blast- 
ing period.  During  the  run  of  gas  steam  was 


18 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


admitted  below  the  grate  in  generator  1,  and  the 
gas  passed  through  the  checkerbrick  in  1  to  the 
top  of  the  checkers  in  2,  where  it  mixed  with  oil 


sprayed  into  the  top  of  the  chamber  by  steam. 
The  gas  then  passed  through  the  bed  of  fuel  in 
2  and  up  superheater  3.  The  object  of  the  regen- 
erator in  this  apparatus  was  to  improve  the 
quality  of  the  water  gas  made  in  the  generator 
by  converting  the  high  percentage  of  carbon 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  19 

dioxide  in  carbon  monoxide,  and  also  to  assist 
in  fixing  the  oil  vapors. 

Another  method  tried  for  some  time  was  the 
Fehiiehjelm  apparatus,  which  consisted  of  a  gen- 
erator extending  into  the  superheater  to  form  a 
vertical  retort,  the  purpose  of  which  was  to 
coke  the  coal  before  being  discharged  into  the 
generator.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  a  modern 
water  gas  machine  will  consume  approximately 
2,000  pounds  of  fuel  per  square  foot  of  grate 
area  in  24  hours,  it  is  evident  that  the  primary 
object  to  this  plant  was  that  the  capacity  of  the 
vertical  retort  was  inadequate  in  producing  suf- 
ficient fuel  for  the  generator. 

The  Rew  apparatus  was  another  modification 
of  plant  designed  for  the  use  of  soft  coal,  and 
was  built  and  operated  in  pairs.  In  this  plant, 
Fig.  4,  the  air  blast  was  admitted  beneath  the 
grate  in  both  generators  1  simultaneously,  and 
passed  over  a  bed  of  fuel  in  chamber  2,  and  down 
regenerator  3.  Primary  air  was  also  admitted 
beneath  the  grate  in  coking  chamber  2  at  4,  and 
secondary  air  to  the  top  of  generator  at  5  and 
regenerator  at  6.  During  the  run  of  gas  steam 
was  admitted  to  the  base  of  one  regenerator  at  7, 
and  traveled  up  and  down  over  the  bed  of  soft 
coal  in  2,  by  which  it  picked  up  hydrocarbons, 
and  then  passed  down  through  the  fire  of  one 


20 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


generator  and  up  through  the  fire  of  the  other 
and  over  the  second  bed  of  coal.  The  gases  then 
passed  to  the  second  regenerator,  where  they 
were  met  by  a  spray  of  oil,  after  which  they 


O'L. 


traveled  to  the  base  of  the  lower  regenerator 
and  led  off  to  the  washing  plant.  At  the  end  of 
the  run  the  air  blasting  was  repeated  and  the 
direction  of  flow  in  the  following  run  reversed. 
This  apparatus  can  not  be  claimed  to  have  been 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  21 

a  permanent  success,  and  its  disadvantages 
appear  to  have  been  in  the  caking  and  sticking 
of  coke  in  the  coking  chamber,  and  the  compara- 
tively large  amount  of  labor  necessary  for  the 
operation  of  the  plant. 

Various  modifications  embodying  these  prin- 
ciples followed,  but  have  either  been  abandoned 
or  altered  for  the  manufacture  of  producer  gases 
for  power  purposes,  and  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
this  work  is  intended  to  discuss  water  gas  appa- 
ratus exclusively,  the  modifications  referred  to 
will  not  be  further  dealt  with. 

CHAPTER  II. 
ELEMENTS  OF  INTERNAL  COMBUSTION  PROCESS. 

The  internal  combustion  process  was,  as  pre- 
viously stated,  originally  invented  by  Dr.  S.  C. 
Lowe  in  1874,  since  when  many  designs  of  plants 
have  been  brought  forward,  each  embodying 
some  new  advantage  or  claim.  In  general,  how- 
ever, the  modern  carburet  ted  water  gas  appa- 
ratus consists  of  a  generator  for  producing 
water  gas  according  to  the  reaction  C+H2O= 
H2+CO,  a  carburettor  for  gasifying  oil,  a  super- 
heater to  permanently  fix  the  gases  produced  in 
the  said  chambers,  an  hydraulic  seal  to  remove 
a  certain  amount  of  tarrv  matter  and  seal  the 


22  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

gases  when  the  machine  is  opened,  and  a  scrub- 
bing and  condensing  plant. 

THE  GENERATOR. 

The  function  of  the  generator  is  to  produce 
water  gas  according  to  the  previous  reaction, 
and  also  to  produce  carbon  monoxide  to  be  burnt 
in  the  carburettor  and  superheater  in  order  to 
supply  the  necessary  heat  for  the  gasification 
of  the  oil.  This  unit  consists  of  a  heavy  steel 
shell  1,  Fig.  5,  which  contains  a  firebrick  lining 
2,  a  set  of  grate  bars  3,  air  and  steam  blast  inlets 
4  and  5,  a  gas  outlet  6,  clinker  and  ash  doors  7, 
and  a  charging  door  8,  with  sight  cock  9. 

In  the  operation  of  this  chamber  for  the  gen- 
eration of  water  gas,  a  blast  of  live  steam  is 
passed  through  a  bed  of  highly  incandescent  fuel, 
containing  carbon,  which  by  reason  of  its  greater 
affinity  combines  with  the  oxygen  of  the  steam 
and  liberates  free  hydrogen,  thereby  forming  the 
two  combustible  gases,  carbon  monoxide  and 
hydrogen.  In  this  part  of  the  reaction  heat  is 
absorbed  from  the  fuel  and  after  a  certain  time 
the  fire  has  to  be  revived.  This  is  accomplished 
by  cutting  off  the  steam  and  admitting  a  blast 
of  air  beneath  the  grate  bars,  which  combines 
with  the  carbon  in  the  lower  part  of  the  gene- 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


23 


24  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

rator,  as  follows:  C+O2=CO2,  and  the  carbon 
dioxide  formed  is  converted  to  carbon  monoxide 
is  passing  up  through  the  fuel  as  follows: 
CO2+C=2CO.  This  gas  is  led  from  the  gen- 
erator to  the  carburetter  and  superheater,  where 
it  is  met  by  another  blast  of  air  and  burnt  as 
CO2  for  the  subsequent  heating  of  these  cham- 
bers. After  the  heating  period  continues  for  a 
sufficient  length  of  time,  the  air  blasts  are  cut 
off  and  the  gas-making  period  again  commenced 
by  passing  steam  through  the  fuel. 

In  Fig.  5  it  is  seen  that  steam  inlets  are  pro- 
vided at  both  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  gen- 
erator as  the  continual  passage  of  steam  in  an 
upward  direction  would  deaden  the  lire  at  the 
bottom,  and  it  is  necessary  to  pass  it  in  a  down- 
ward direction  about  once  in  three  periods.  The 
percentage  of  fluids  used  vary  with  the  nature 
of  the  fuel  and  working  temperatures  of  the 
plant,  and  an  excess  amount  of  steam  will  lower 
the  temperature  of  the  fuel  too  much  and  pro- 
duce carbon  dioxide,  which  is  very  detrimental 
to  the  calorific  and  illuminating  power  of  the 
gas.  It  is  seen,  then,  that  the  keeping  of  the 
fuel  bed  at  a  uniform  temperature  is  a  very 
important  factor  in  keeping  down  the  percentage 
of  CO2,  and  the  sight  cock  provided,  when  used 
frequently,  is  of  valuable  service,  as  the  operator 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  25 

soon  becomes  expert  in  judging  the  correct  tem- 
perature. 

CARE  OF  THE  FIRE. 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  is  gas  mak- 
ing is  the  controlling  of  the  generator  tire,  and 
whilst  engineers  differ  in  their  opinion  as  to 
the  correct  number  of  runs  to  be  made  in  each 
charge,  an  average  of  the  methods  adopted  may 
be  taken  at  six  runs  when  coal  is  used,  and  four 
when  coke  is  used.  This  should  be  done  after 
the  run  of  gas,  and  the  operator  should  always 
take  care  to  blow  the  gas  from  the  machine  by 
opening  the  blast  valve  for  a  few  seconds  before 
opening  the  charging  door,  or  an  explosion  will 
result  when  the  combustible  gases  .meet  the 
oxygen  in  the  atmosphere.  After  six  or  eight 
hours'  continuous  operation,  it  is  found  that  a^h 
and  metallic  residue  from  the  fuel  accumulates 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  machine,  and  prevents 
the  air  and  steam  from  passing  freely  through 
the  fire,  and  thereby  seriously  interferes  with 
the  capacity  of  the  apparatus.  It  is  then  neces- 
sary to  temporarily  shut  down  the  plant  ana 
remove  the  clinkers  by  means  of  the  doors  7, 
Fig.  5,  and  in  preparation  of  this  the  fuel  bed 
is  burned  well  down  to  allow  the  removal  of 
clinkers  which  may  adhere  to  the  generator  wall. 


26  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

When  the  fire  is  at  a  suitable  depth,  the  gas  is 
first  blown  from  the  machine  by  the  air  blast, 
and  then  the  charging  door  is  opened  and  the 
gas  lit  off  before  opening  the  clinkering  door. 
After  the  clinkers  are  drawn  by  means  off  bars 
and  hooks,  the  ash  pit  door  is  opened  for  the 
withdrawal  of  matter  which  falls  through  the 
grate  bars,  and  on  reclosing  care  should  be  taken 
to  clean  the  doors  well  to  ensure  a  gas  tight 
joint.  If  the  machine  is  then  to  be  shut  down 
for  the  night  it  is  charged  well  up,  the  depth  of 
fuel  made  even  all  round,  and  the  ash  pit  door 
slightly  cracked  to  admit  a  small  portion  of  air 
to  keep  the  fire  alive.  If  the  machine,  however, 
is  to  be  put  directly  back  to  gasmaking,  the 
doors  are  made  tight  and  the  air  blast  put  on 
slightly  longer  than  usual  to  heat  the  heavy 
charge  of  fresh  fuel. 

CARBURETTER  AND  SUPERHEATER. 

The  carburetter  B,  Fig.  6,  comprises  the  second 
unit  in  a  carburetted  water  gas  set,  and  consists 
of  a  chamber  with  a  steel  shell  lined  with  fire- 
brick, and  is  filled  with  a  checkerwork  of  fire- 
brick, the  purpose  of  which  is  to  store  up  heat 
for  the  gasification  of  oil.  It  is  provided  with 
an  oil  inlet  1,  an  air  blast  inlet  2,  a  steam  inlet 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


27 


28  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

in  the  oil  line  3,  valve  connections  to  the  gen- 
erator A,  and  a  passage  to  the  superheater. 
During  the  heating  or  blasting  period,  the  gases 
coming  from  the  generator  consist  of  carbon 
dioxide  and  carbon  monoxide,  and  the  sensible 
heat  supplies  a  comparatively  large  proportion 
of  the  heat  necessary  to  maintain  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  checkerwork.  It  is  found,  however, 
necessary  to  admit  a  portion  of  secondary  air 
at  2  to  burn  the  remainder  of  the  gases  and  keep 
up  the  required  temperature,  which  varies  with 
the  grade  of  oil  used,  but  in  a  general  way  may 
be  taken  at  from  1,400  to  1,600  degrees  Fahren- 
heit. When  the  necessary  heats  have  been 
reached,  the  air  blasts  are  cut  off,  and  oil  is 
sprayed  into  the  carburetter  whilst  steam  Is 
being  passed  through  the  fuel  in  the  generator, 
which  results  in  breaking  up  the  oil  into  Its 
component  parts,  and  loading  the  otherwise  non- 
luminous  water  gas  with  hydrocarbons  of  a  high 
illuminating  quality. 

The  superheater  C  is  the  third  unit  in  the 
process,  of  like  construction  to  the  carburetter, 
and  is  provided  with  a  sight  cock  and  air  blast 
inlet  at  its  lower  portion,  and  a  gas  outlet  and 
stack  valve  at  the  top  of  the  chamber.  This  unit, 
which  is  sometimes  known  as  the  fixing  chamber, 
is  intended  to  fix  the  products  of  the  previous 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  29 

chamber  into  permanent  gases  and  complete  the 
work  of  the  generating  plant.  The  air  blast 
inlet,  whilst  provided  in  practically  all  types  ot 
apparatus,  is  scarcely  used  inasmuch  that  the 
sensible  heat  from  the  carburetter  is  usually  suf- 
ficient to  maintain  the  temperature  of  this  cham- 
ber, and  it  is  only  necessary  to  use  the  valve 
when  starting  a  set  after  being  shut  down  for 
repairs.  On  leaving  the  fixing  chamber,  tne 
blast  gases  enter  into  the  atmosphere  through 
the  stack  or  through  a  waste  heat  boiler  for  the 
generation  of  steam,  and  the  carburetted  water 
gas  during  the  run  passes  through  the  off-take 
to  the  wash  box,  which  prevents  the  gas  from 
returning  when  the  stack  valve  is  reopened,  and 
then  to  the  scrubbing  and  condensing  plant. 

OIL  SPRAY. 

In  injecting  the  oil  into  the  carburetter  it  is 
of  great  importance  that  it  is  distributed  over 
the  surface  of  the  checkerbrick  as  evenly  as  pos- 
sible, as  a  straight  injection  is  the  cause  of  dead 
holes  down  the  center  of  the  carburetter  where 
the  oil  enters,  and  a  variety  of  devices  have  been 
used  to  distribute  the  oil  evenly.  One  form  of 
injector  which  the  writer  has  found  to  give  good 
results  is  shown  in  Fig.  7,  and  consists  of  a  spray 


30  Elements  of  Water  Gas 


OtL. 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  31 

nozzle  1,  which  threads  on  a  wrought  iron  pipe 
2,  and  contains  a  disc  3,  through  which  the  valve 
rod  4  passes.  The  disc  contains  a  series  of  small 
holes  5,  and  the  spray  nozzle  and  valve  rod  form 
a  tapered  joint  6,  which  produces  a  very  tine 
injection.  A  protecting  shield  which  threads  in 
the  head  of  the  carburetter  is  also  provided,  and 
the  spray  can  be  readily  moved  for  inspection 
by  means  of  the  nuts.  These  sprays  are  made  in 
various  sizes  to  atomize  a  certain  number  of  gal- 
lons per  minute,  and  the  specified  number  can 
be  adjusted  by  means  of  the  hand  wheel. 

PYROMETERS. 

The  most  commonly  used  pyrometers  in  the 
manufacture  of  water  gas  is  the  thermo-electric 
type,  which  depend  for  their  action  on  the  fact 
than  when  two  metals  in  contact  are  heated  and 
the  cool  end  connected  by  a  wire  an  electric  cur- 
rent is  generated  in  proportion  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  heated  contact.  The  metals  employed 
usually  consist  of  platinum  and  platinum-ro- 
dium,  which  are  fused  together  at  one  end  and 
connected  at  the  other  end  to  suitable  indicating 
and  recording  gauges.  These  pyrometers  are 
usually  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  carburetter 
and  top  of  superheater,  and  are  protected  by  a 


32 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


shield  of  wrought  iron.  The  indicating  gauge 
is  placed  on  the  operating  floor  to  guide  the  gas- 
maker  in  his  work,  and  the  recording  gauge  is 


/o 


placed  in  the  engineer's  or  superintendent's  office 
to  enable  the  temperatures  of  the  machine  to  be 
ascertained  at  any  time  without  leaving  the 
office.  As  previously  shown,  the  heats  of  the 
machine  alternate  with  the  blasting  and  gas- 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  33 

making  period,  and  a  recording  chart  of  an  effi- 
cient gasmaker  would  appear  as  illustrated  in 
Fig.  8,  in  which  the  high  heat  represents  the 
beginning  of  the  run,  and  the  low  heat  the  begin- 
ning of  the  blow. 

WASHING,  SCRUBBING,  AND  CONDENSING  PLANT. 

After  the  carburetted  water  gas  leaves  the 
superheater  it  passes  through  the  off-take  pipe 
to  the  wash-box  or  seal,  where  a  considerable 
amount  of  tar  is  deposited.  This  vessel  usually 
consists  of  a  cylindrical  tank  into  which  a 
stream  of  water  is  constantly  passed  to  maintain 
a  constant  level  in  the  box,  and  thereby  prevent 
the  gases  from  returning  when  the  stack  valve 
is  opened.  The  mixture  of  tar  and  water  is  led 
from  the  wash-box  at  the  overflow  into  a  seal 
pot,  from  which  it  flows  to  a  well  or  tar  sepa- 
rator, and  the  gases  pass  up  a  hot  scrubber  and 
through  a  condenser  to  a  relief  holder.  In  Fig.  9 
is  shown  one  type  of  scrubber  which  is  fre- 
quently used,  and  consists  of  a  cylindrical  tower 
filled  with  coke  or  layers  of  wooden  trays,  which 
break  up  the  gas  into  fine  streams  as  it  passes 
upwards,  and  brings  it  in  contact  with  hot  water 
constantly  passing  down,  which  has  the  effect 
of  removing  more  tar  and  suspended  oils.  These 


34 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  35 

apparatus  are  provided  with  separate  compart- 
ments, each  of  which  are  provided  with  large 
manholes  for  easy  access  whereby  the  filling  of 
any  one  compartment  may  be  removed  without 
disturbing  the  contents  of  the  remaining  com- 
partments. On  leaving  this  tower  the  gas  passes 
to  a  condenser,  which  is  generally  of  the  mnlti- 
tublar  water  cooled  type,  where  more  tar  is 
dropped,  after  which  the  gas  passes  to  a  relief 
holder  and  treated  further  in  other  scrubbing 
and  purifying  plant. 

LINING  AND  REPAIRS. 

When  a  water  gas  apparatus  has  been  run  for 
a  certain  period,  it  is  necessary  to  let  it  down 
for  repairs  to  generator  lining  and  renewing  the 
checkerbrick  in  the  carburetter  and  superheater. 
This  period  varies  according  to  condition  and 
the  engineer's  opinion,  but  in  a  general  way  may 
be  taken  at  1,000  hours.  In  letting  down  the 
machine,  however,  the  temperature  should  be 
allowed  to  lower  gradually  to  prevent  rapid  con- 
traction, and  it  is  best  to  kill  the  generator  fire 
slowly  with  steam  before  drawing  it,  and  allow- 
ing cold  air  to  enter  a  hot  machine.  When  the 
set  has  finally  cooled  off  a  careful  examination 
should  be  made  of  the  inner  firebrick  lining  of 
the  generator,  particularly  around  the  cleaning 


36  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

doors,  where  it  usually  wears  out  quickly,  and 
the  necessary  repairs  made  with  a  very  close 
joint,  using  as  little  fireclay  as  possible  between 
the  bricks.  The  doors  are  generally  built  up 
with  arches  and  blocks  over  a  cast  iron  sleeve, 
and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  enable  the  sleeve  to 
be  removed  when  it  burns  out  and  replaced  with 
a  new  one  from  the  exterior  of  the  machine. 
Special  care  should  also  be  given  to  the  brick 
work  around  the  charging  door,  as  these  are  lia- 
ble to  be  knocked  out  by  bars  and  shovels  when 
clinkering  and  charging,  and  one  crevice  may 
let  down  more  bricks  and  cause  the  neck  casting 
to  be  burned  or  cracked. 

It  is  then  necessary  to  give  some  attention  to 
the  carburetter  and  superheater,  which  requires 
a  renewal  or  cleaning  of  the  checkerbrick.  In 
the  injection  of  oil  into  the  carburetter  practi- 
cally no  design  of  spray  reach  their  maximum 
efficiency  and  the  brick  at  the  top  of  the  chamber 
where  the  oil  enters  are  generally  coated  with 
lampblack  or  splintered  by  the  force  of  the  injec- 
tion. In  any  case  the  brickwork  becomes  more 
or  less  saturated  with  oil,  which  burns  to  carbon 
and  finally  does  not  take  up  and  give  out  the 
heat  necessary  for  the  economical  working  of  the 
plant,  and  all  the  checkerwork  should  be 
removed  by  way  of  manhole  doors  provided  and 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


38  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

thoroughly  cleaned  or  replaced  with  new  bricks. 
Usually  ordinary  firebrick  are  used,  and  these 
are  placed  on  their  edges  in  rows  at  right  angles 
to  each  other  with  a  space  of  one  and  one-half 
to  two  and  one-half  inches  between  adjacent 
rows.  The  rows  of  each  tier  are  so  placed  that 
each  comes  directly  over  the  space  left  between 
the  two  rows  of  bricks  running  in  the  same  direc- 
tion in  the  second  tier  below.  This  is  seen  in 
Fig.  10,  where  the  longitudinal  rows  of  bricks 
in  tier  1  comes  directly  over  the  spaces  between 
the  rows  of  tier  2,  and  the  rows  in  tier  3  come 
over  the  spaces  in  tier  4,  and  also  tiers  1  and  2 
come  over  spaces  in  tiers  3  and  4  running  in 
the  same  direction,  which  give  the  gases  a  wave- 
like  motion  throughout  the  chamber. 

CLEANING  THE  STANDPIPE. 

The  off-take  pipe,  which  connects  the  super- 
heater to  the  wash-box,  gradually  becomes  coated 
with  carbon  deposits,  and  an  unusual  back  pres- 
sure will  be  seen  on  the  operator's  gauge  board 
when  the  coating  becomes  excessive.  When  this 
occurs,  the  hand  hole  doors  are  removed,  and 
the  carbon  cleaned  off  by  means  of  bars,  caution 
being  taken  to  prevent  the  carbon  from  falling 
in  the  wash-box  by  placing  a  tray  in  the  bottom 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  39 

cleaning  door  of  the  standpipe.  It  is  also  neces- 
sary to  clean  out  the  wash-box  occasionally,  and 
it  is  advisable  to  open  the  outlet  valve  at  the 
bottom  and  wash  out  the  heavy  tarry  matter 
about  once  a  week. 

CHEMICAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

Water  is  composed  of  two  parts  of  hydrogen 
and  one  part  of  oxygen,  and  the  process  of 
obtaining  gases  by  the  decomposition  of  water 
vapor  or  steam  is  known  as  the  "Water  Gas  Pro- 
cess" in  view  of  the  fact  that  three-fifths  of  its 
weight  and  three-fourths  of  its  bulk  consists  of 
the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  which  previously  con- 
stituted water  H2O.  It  has  been  repeatedly 
proven  in  chemical  research  that  steam  can  not 
be  broken  into  its  component  parts  by  the  direct 
action  of  heat  alone,  but  when  subjected  to  high 
temperatures  in  the  presence  of  reducing  agents 
which  have  a  stronger  affinity  for  the  oxygen 
than  the  hydrogen  with  which  it  is  combined, 
the  oxygen  will  combine  with  the  reducing  ele- 
ment and  liberate  free  hydrogen. 

On  this  theory  the  water  gas  process  is 
founded,  and  the  reducing  element  is  carbon  con- 
taining matter,  usually  coal  or  coke.  The  reac- 
tion is  brought  about  by  subjecting  the  hot  fuel 
to  the  influence  of  an  air  blast  wherebv  tne 


40  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

oxygen  of  the  air  combines  with  the  carbon  of 
the  fuel  to  form  carbon  monoxide  (CO)  or  car- 
bon dioxide  (CO2)  according  to  the  proportion 
of  oxygen  available.  The  combination  of  the 
carbon  and  oxygen  may  occur  in  different  pro- 
portions to  form  different  gases,  according  to  the 
following  conditions. 

In  the  presence  of  an  excess  of  oxygen  burn- 
ing carbon  saturates  itself  with  two  atomic  pro- 
portions of  oxygen,  and  forms  the  gas  CO2.  This 
reaction  is  exothermic  and  completes  the  com- 
bustion of  the  carbon  with  the  evolution  of 
14,500  British  Thermal  Units  (B.  T.  U.)  per 
pound  of  carbon,  taking  two  and  two-third 
pounds  of  oxygen  and  forming  three  and  two- 
third  pounds  of  carbon  dioxide.  This  reaction 
being  complete  is  known  as  the  first  law  of  com- 
bustion. 

In  the  second  law  of  combustion  the  supply 
of  oxygen  is  insufficient  to  completely  saturate 
the  carbon,  and  the  excess  carbon  will  partially 
satisfy  its  affinity  for  oxygen  by  combining  with 
one  atomic  proportion  or  robbing  saturated  car- 
bon of  one  of  its  oxygen  atoms,  for  instance, 
carbon  dioxide  passing  through  heated  carbon 
will  be  reduced  to  carbon  monoxide,  as  follows: 
CO2+C=2CO,  with  an  absorbing  of  5,880  B.  T. 
IT.  per  pound  of  carbon. 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  41 

If  the  carbon  monoxide  is  then  brought  in 
contact  with  an  excess  of  oxygen,  the  third  law 
of  combustion  takes  place  to  carbon  dioxide 
with  an  evolution  of  10,190  B.  T.  U.  per  pound 
of  carbon.  In  the  above  it  is  seen,  then,  that 
in  the  first  law  of  combustion  one  pound  of  car- 
bon takes  up  two  and  two-third  pounds  of 
oxygen,  and  forms  three  and  two-third  pounds 
of  carbon  dioxide  with  an  evolution  of  14,500 
B.  T.  U.  In  the  second  law  the  CO2  is  reduced 
by  the  second  pound  of  carbon  with  an  absorb- 
ing of  5,880  B.  T.  U.,  resulting  in  the  formation 
of  four  and  two-third  pounds  of  carbon  monoxide 
with  the  total  evolution  of  8,620  B.  T.  U.  In 
the  third  law  the  CO  takes  up  another  atomic 
proportion  of  oxygen  and  produces  complete 
combustion  with  the  evolution  of  20,380  B.  T.  U. 
and  the  formation  of  seven  and  one-third  pounds 
of  carbon  dioxide,  which  makes  the  total  heat 
evolved  from  two  pounds  of  carbon  as  29,000 
B.  T.  U. 

In  the  elementary  study  of  the  carburetted 
water  gas  process  in  this  chapter,  it  has  been 
seen  that  a  blast  of  air  is  first  admitted  to  the 
generator  when  the  excess  of  oxygen  combines 
with  carbon  and  the  first  law  of  combustion 
takes  place.  The  CO2  gases  thus  formed  then 
pass  up  the  bed  of  fuel  in  an  excess  of  carbon 


42  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

when  the  gases  are  reduced  to  CO,  which  con- 
stitutes the  second  law,  and  these  are  passed  to 
the  carburetter  to  be  met  by  another  blast  of 
air  when  the  third  law  of  combustion  takes  place 
and  completes  the  heating  period  of  the  process. 
In  the  decomposition  of  the  steam  in  the  gas- 
making  period  there  is  absorbed  4,340  B.  T.  U. 
per  pound  of  carbon,  which  generates  approxi- 
mately 62  cubic  feet  of  gas  with  a  calorific  value 
of  approximately  300  B.  T.  U.  The  value  of  this 
gas,  however,  is  too  low  for  domestic  purposes, 
and  the  purpose  of  the  carburetter  is,  therefore, 
to  generate  gas  of  high  illuminating  value  and 
thereby  enrich  the  blue  water  gas.  The  compo- 
sition of  the  oil  gases  may  vary  with  different 
conditions  and  qualities,  and  a  typical  analyses 
before  and  after  enrichment  is  as  follows : 

Carburetted 
Blue  Water  Gas.       Water  Gas. 

Hydrogen  (H) 51.00  30.40  per  cent. 

Methane    (CH4) 0.50  16.90 

Hydrocarbons 0.00  7.25 

Carbon  monoxide.  .  .  .40.00  29.00         " 

Carbon  dioxide 5.50  2.05         " 

Oxygen    (O) 0.00  0.20         " 

Nitrogen    (N) 3.00  5.10         " 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  43 

The  consumption  of  fuel  coincident  with  these 
figures  will  be  about  35  pounds  of  coke  and  3.33 
gallons  of  oil  per  1,000  cubic  feet  of  gas,  with  a 
candle  power  of  20  or  heating  value  of  580 
R  T.  U. 

CHAPTER  III. 
STANDARD  DOUBLE  SUPERHEATER. 

UP  AND  DOWN  RUNS. 

In  the  preceding  chapter  the  reader  has  been 
led  into  the  elements  of  the  internal  combustion 
or  intermittent  system,  and  it  will  now  be  to 
advantage  to  illustrate  a  standard  type  of 
machine  in  which  modern  methods  are  employed. 
The  following  descriptions  are  not  confined  to 
any  one  particular  plant,  but  embodies  the  most 
interesting  features  of  various  designs.  In  the 
early  developments  of  the  intermittent  process 
the  steam  used  in  the  generator  always  entered 
beneath  the  grate  and  passed  upward  through 
the  fuel  bed  to  the  carburetter.  This,  however, 
resulted  in  the  lower  part  of  the  fire  being  cooled 
considerably,  and  a  down  or  reverse  run  was 
occasionally  adopted  to  overcome  this  difficulty. 
After  continued  application  of  the  down  run  it 
was  found  that  it  had  several  effects  on  the  fuel 


44  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

bed,  the  foremost  of  which  may  be  summarized 
as  follows: 

(1)  It    reduced   labor   in    clinkering   and   in 

picking  out  comparatively  large  pro- 
portion of  unburnt  coke. 

(2)  It  effected  a  saving  in  fuel  by  burning 

small  coke  that  otherwise  fell  through 
the  grate  bars. 

(3)  It  made  it  possible  to  vary  the  height  of 

the  zone  of  intense  combustion,  and 
allow  the  use  of  a  wider  range  of  fuels. 

(4)  It  enables  the  temperature  at  the  top  of 

the  fire  to  be  better  controlled,  and  con- 
sequently a  better  control  in  tempera- 
tures in  the  carburetter  and  super- 
heater. 

In  the  early  attempts  the  down  runs  were 
made  about  once  in  every  six,  but  this  has  been 
increased  to  one  in  every  three  or  less,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  fuel  used.  In  the  up  run  the 
gases  leave  the  generator  at  the  top,  and  in  the 
down  run  at  the  bottom,  each  outlet  being  con- 
trolled by  valves  which  are  linked  together  so 
that  one  opens  when  the  other  closes.  The  top 
valve  is  generally  known  as  the  hot  valve,  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  burning  gases  pass  through  it 
during  the  air-blasting  period,  and  it  was  until 
recent  years  necessary  to  water  cool  it  to  pre- 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  45 


46  Elements  of   Water  Gas 

vent  overheating  and  eventual  cracking.  In 
modern  apparatus,  however,  the  metallic  com- 
position of  this  valve  is  capable  of  withstanding 
the  heat  and  a  dry  valve  is  now  employed. 

One  of  the  most  common  means  of  connecting 
the  top  and  bottom  outlet  valves  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  11,  in  which  1  is  the  top  outlet  for  the 
up  runs,  2  the  bottom  outlet  for  the  down  runs, 
3  a  counterbalance  weight  which  serve  to  equal- 
ize the  load  in  either  direction,  and  4  a  dust 
catcher  which  collects  solid  matter  carried  over 
in  the  gas,  and  thereby  prevents  such  from  enter- 
ing the  carburetter.  The  hot  valve  is  also  pro- 
vided with  an  ash  pocket  (not  shown)  for  col- 
lecting solid  matter  which  is  liable  to  interfere 
Avith  the  seating  of  the  valve,  and  this,  in  con- 
junction with  the  dust  catcher,  should  be  cleared 
every  few  days  to  ensure  proper  seating  of  valves 
and  a  free  passage  of  gas. 

CENTRAL  BLAST  AND  AIR-COOLED  OIL  SPRAY. 

An  interesting  feature  in  one  design  of  plant 
is  the  arrangement  of  the  blast  pipe  entering  the 
carburetter,  by  which  a  more  uniform  heat  is 
obtained  in  the  top  of  the  chamber,  and  also  has 
the  effect  of  keeping  the  oil  spray  cool  during 
the  blasting  period  when  oil  is  not  being  passed 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


47 


through  it.  In  this  arrangement  Fig.  12,  the 
blast  gases  come  from  the  generator  at  1,  and 
the  secondary  air  blast  enters  the  carburetter  at 
2,  which  effects  combustion  directly  in  the  center 


of  the  chamber,  and  thereby  produces  a  more 
even  distribution  of  heat  over  the  surface  of  the 
checkerbrick.  The  oil  spray  3  is  also  kept  cool 
by  this  arrangement,  as  combustion  does  not 
take  place  until  the  secondary  air  meets  the  blast 
gases  in  the  top  of  the  carburetter. 


48  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

OIL  HEATER. 

In  certain  climates  it  is  advisable  to  heat  the 
oil  before  passing  it  into  the  machine,  and  this 
has  been  done  in  various  ways.  One  method 
that  has  been  largely  used  was  to  place  a  coil 
of  pipe  in  the  gas  off-take  between  the  super- 
heater and  wash-box  and  pre-heat  the  oil  by  pass- 
ing it  through  the  coil  while  the  hot  gases  were 
passing  in  the  opposite  direction.  These  heaters, 
however,  gave  considerable  trouble  with  stop- 
pages, and  the  coil  became  coated  with  lamp- 
black, which  reduced  the  efficiency  considerably, 
and  in  due  course  the  method  was  abandoned 
for  the  simple  modification  illustrated  in  Fig.  13. 
In  this  heater  the  cold  oil  is  circulated  around 
a  coil  of  steam  pipe  in  a  suitable  vessel,  which  is 
made  of  cast  iron  and  is  provided  with  a  steam 
inlet  1,  a  coil  of  pipe  2,  a  steam  outlet  3,  oil  inlet 
4,  and  oil  outlet  5.  A  vapor  chamber  6  is  also 
provided  at  the  top  of  the  heater,  which  main- 
tains a  constant  pressure  on  the  hot  oil  line  by 
minimizing  the  pulsations  of  the  oil  pump.  Pre- 
vious to  entering  the  heater  the  oil  is  measured 
cold  by  passing  through  a  meter,  and  the  steam 
condensed  by  passing  through  the  coil  of  pipe 
is  led  to  a  steam  trap. 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  49 


50  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

AIR  METER. 

One  of  the  most  important  developments  in 
water  gas  manufacture  was  the  introduction  of 
the  air  and  steam  meters,  by  which  accurate 
measurements  of  the  fluids  employed  could  be 
made  and  thereby  the  process  put  on  a  more 
scientific  basis.  Whilst  different  designs  of 
meter  have  been  used,  the  principles  employed 
are  practically  the  same,  the  essence  of  which  is 
illustrated  in  the  following  descriptions. 

The  application  of  the  air  meter  to  the  car- 
buretted  water  gas  machine  is  shown  in  Figs. 
14  and  15,  in  which  1  comprises  the  generator, 
2  the  carburetter,  3  the  superheater,  and  4  the 
wash  or  seal  box.  The  air  blast  pipe  5  is  pro- 
vided with  the  usual  branches,  6,  7,  8  to  1,  2,  3, 
each  of  which  is  provided  with  a  supply  regulat- 
ing valve  9.  The  essence  of  the  meter  lies  in  the 
venturi  tubes  10,  which  are  placed  in  each  air 
supply,  and  indicates  the  volume  of  air  passing 
through  per  second  or  other  unit  of  time  by  rea- 
son of  the  different  pressures  that  simultane- 
ously exist  in  the  most  contracted  area  or  throat 
and  the  larger  area  on  each  side  of  the  throat, 
and  since  this  indication  is  continuous,  it 
enables  the  difference  to  be  transmitted  to  a  suit- 
able indicating  gauge.  It  is  now  a  well  estab- 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


51 


52  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

lished  fact  that  the  economical  operation  of  a 
water  gas  set  requires  that  each  set  of  the  pro- 
cess must  be  performed  in  a  manner  that  has 
been  ascertained  to  be  the  most  efficient,  and  it 
is  necessary  that  a  pre-determined  volume  of  air- 
is  introduced  in  each  blow  in  order  to  raise  the 
apparatus  to  the  correct  temperature  for  the 
reception  of  a  given  quantity  of  oil  and  steam. 
For  instance,  if  a  larger  volume  of  air  is  passed 
through  the  generator  than  what  is  needed,  an 
unnecessary  consumption  of  fuel  will  result, 
whilst  an  insufficient  quantity  of  air  will  fail  to 
raise  the  machine  to  the  required  temperature 
for  gas  making.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  the 
temperature  of  the  set  is  substantially  propor- 
tional to  the  quantity  of  air  introduced,  and  the 
volume  of  gas  made  is  proportional  to  amount  of 
steam  and  oil  capable  of  being  decomposed  or 
vaporized  by  the  temperature  of  the  machine. 
Prom  the  above  it  is  clear  that  the  admission  of 
a  pre-determined  volume  of  air  is  necessary  for 
the  economical  operation  of  the  set,  and  the  ven- 
turi  tubes  10,  shown  more  fully  in  Fig.  15,  are 
connected  to  a  gauge  on  the  operating  floor  by 
means  of  pipes  12  and  13,  which  enable  the  oper- 
ator to  know  at  a  glance  the  volume  of  air  pass- 
ing to  the  set.  The  gauges  are  provided  with 
pet  cocks  14,  valves  at  15,  and  a  graduated  scale 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


53 


54:  Elements  of   Water  Gas 

16  for  convenient  reading.  In  operating  the  set 
with  the  guidance  of  this  meter,  the  attendant 
knows  in  advance  the  volume  of  air  that  is  to 
be  introduced  to  the  respective  parts  of  the  appa- 
ratus, and  he  can,  therefore,  accomplish  this  by 
reference  to  the  scale  16,  and  the  adjustment  of 
the  valves  9  accordingly. 

STEAM  METER. 

The  object  of  the  steam  meter  is  to  provide 
means  for  controlling  the  quality  and  quantity 
of  the  gas  produced  by  enabling  the  operator  to 
introduce  a  definite  volume  of  steam  into  the 
generator  per  volume  of  gas  required  in  conjunc- 
tion with  a  pre-determined  volume  of  air.  For 
instance,  if  the  set  is  such  that  it  is  required  to 
generate  10,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  run  of  four 
minutes,  the  air  meter  will  be  set  in  accordance 
with  this  to  guide  the  operator  in  admitting  suf- 
ficient air  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  fuel  to 
a  degree  at  which  it  will  decompose  sufficient 
steam  for  the  production  of  10,000  cubic  feet  of 
fixed  gas,  and  the  steam  meter  will  be  set  in 
accordance  with  it  to  allow  an  accurate  volume 
of  the  fluid  to  be  admitted,  and  thereby  prevent 
the  fire  from  being  cooled  too  much  or  insuffi- 
ciently. It  has  been  found  in  practice  that  it 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 

o 


55 


2  * 


50  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

requires  approximately  30  pounds  of  water  in 
the  form  of  steam  per  1,000  cubic  feet  of  car- 
buretted  water  gas,  and  in  the  example  referred 
to,  where  10,000  cubic  feet  needs  to  be  produced 
in  four  minutes,  the  fuel  would  require  sufficient 
steam  per  minute  for  the  production  of  2,500 
cubic  feet,  which  is  30X2.5=75  pounds.  With 
these  pre-determined  facts  the  respective  meters 
are  set  so  that  the  attendant  knows  exactly  what 
is  required  in  the  apparatus,  and  thereby  oper- 
ates the  machine  -accordingly  for  a  desired 
result. 

One  of  the  best  and  simplest  forms  of  steam 
meters  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  16,  in  which  1  is 
the  generator,  with  the  usual  charging  and  off- 
take ports,  2  is  a  gauge  or  metal  dial,  and  3  is 
the  meter  tube  through  which  the  steam  used  in 
the  generator  passes.  This  tube  consists  of  an 
internally  bell  shaped  body,  4,  Fig.  17,  having  an 
inlet  5,  and  outlet  6,  and  is  connected  at  its  inlet 
to  pipe  7  communicating  to  the  meter  dial,  and 
at  its  outlet  to  the  generator  by  way  of  8.  The 
steam  is  supplied  by  way  of  pipe  9  through  valve 
10  and  automatic  pressure  regulator  11,  which 
adjusts  variations  in  boiler  pressure  and  main- 
tains a  constant  pressure  at  the  meter  tube.  The 
regulator  may  be  of  various  design,  and  a  con- 
venient one  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  16,  consists  of 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 

S 


57 


58  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

an  adjustable  weighted  spindle  12,  connected 
with  a  diaphragm  13,  and  having  valves  14  and 
15.  This  device  is  connected  to  pipe  16,  which 
leads  to  meter  tube  3  and  keeps  the  pressure  of 
the  steam  constant  on  the  inlet  side  of  the  tube 
and  appropriate  for  causing  2  to  indicate  the 
required  volume  passing  through  per  unit  of 
time.  The  theory  of  this  measurement  is  based 
upon  the  fact  that  the  quantity  of  flow  through 
tube  3  is  directly  proportionate  to  the  absolute 
pressure  of  the  steam  on  the  inlet  side  of  the 
meter  tube,  and  inasmuch  as  the  gauge  2  indi- 
cates the  pressure,  it  also  indicates  the  quantity 
of  flow  of  steam  entering  the  generator  per  unit 
of  time,  and  under  these  conditions  it  is  only 
necessary  for  the  attendant  to  operate  the  valve 
10  when  commencing  or  ending  a  run.  Occa- 
sionally, however,  the  steam  regulator  is  omitted 
when  it  is  necessary  to  operate  the  valve  to  a 
position  corresponding  to  the  amount  of  steam 
required  as  indicated  by  the  gauge. 

AIR  REGULATOR. 

One  of  the  latest  developments  in  the  progress 
of  water  gas  manufacture  is  the  air  regulator, 
the  object  of  which  is  to  automatically  increase 
the  quantity  of  air  supplied  for  the  combustion 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  59 

of  carbon  monoxide  to  carbon  dioxide  in  the 
carburetter  as  the  quantity  of  the  former  gas 
increases.  In  the  heating  or  air  blasting  period 
of  the  apparatus  the  composition  of  the  gases 
given  off  from  the  generator  varies  during  dif- 
ferent portions  of  the  blow  whilst  the  fuel  is 
being  raised  to  its  highest  state  of  incandes- 
cence, and  invariably  gives  off  a  greater  propor- 
tion of  combustible  gas  as  the  temperature  con- 
tinues to  rise  and  liberates  carbon  more  rapidly. 
Under  the  average  conditions  it  has  been  found 
that  the  percentages  of  carbon  monoxide  in  the 
producer  gases  from  the  generator  varies  from 
5.00  per  cent,  after  25  seconds  of  blasting  to 
20.00  per  cent,  after  200  seconds  of  blasting,  and 
in  order  to  effect  complete  combustion  of  the 
gas  it  is  evident  that  the  quantity  of  air  admitted 
to  the  carburetter  needs  to  increase  in  accord- 
ance with  the  increase  of  combustible  matter, 
whilst,  at  the  same  time,  an  uncalculated  in- 
crease, such  as  raising  the  valve  at  intervals,  is 
liable  to  cause  an  excess  of  air  to  be  admitted 
at  certain  portions  of  the  blow,  and  thereby  cool 
the  checkerbricks  and  seriously  affect  the  eco- 
nomical operation  of  the  plant. 

An  interesting  and  simple  device  used  for  the 
purpose  of  controlling  the  necessary  quantity 
of  air  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  18,  in  which  1  is  the 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  61 

secondary  air  line  leading  to  the  carburetter, 
and  is  provided  with  valve  2,  which  is  connected 
by  links  and  levers  to  operating  mechanism  on 
holder  3.  The  holder  is  provided  with  a  bell  4, 
connected  by  rope  5  to  the  operating  handle  6 
of  a  damper  7,  arranged  in  the  air  line  1.  The 
interior  of  the  bell  is  connected  by  means  of  a 
three-way  cock  8  to  a  pipe  9,  which  leads  to  the 
air  line  or  to  pipe  10,  which  leads  to  the  atmos- 
phere, each  branch  being  provided  with  regu- 
lating cocks  11.  A  counterweight  for  the  damper 
7  is  provided  at  12,  and  the  three-way  valve  is 
connected  to  valve  2  by  means  of  link  13,  bell 
crank  14,  link  15,  and  handle  16,  so  that  the 
operation  of  valve  2  will  also  operate  the  three- 
way  valve  8.  In  the  run  of  gas  when  the  gate 
valve  2  is  closed  the  position  of  the  three-way 
cock  is  such  that  the  bell  4  is  in  communication 
with  the  air  line  1,  which  results  in  the  bell 
being  raised  to  the  stops  as  indicated  by  dotted 
lines,  and  simultaneously  causes  the  counter- 
weight 12  to  close  the  damper  7  by  means  of  the 
lever  6.  At  the  end  of  the  run  of  gas  the  gen- 
erator air  blast  is  opened,  and  a  few  seconds 
later  the  carburetter  blast  valve  2  is  opened, 
which  in  turn  operates  the  cock  8  so  that  the  bell 
is  put  in  communication  with  the  atmosphere 
by  way  of  pipe  10,  which  causes  air  to  gradually 


02  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

escape  and  the  bell  to  descend.  This  movement 
actuates  the  damper  7  and  automatically 
increases  the  supply  of  air  through  valve  2  into 
the  carburetter  simultaneously  with  the  increase 
in  temperature  of  the  fuel  bed  in  the  generator, 
and  subsequent  decomposition  of  the  fuel  more 
rapidly.  The  speed  of  descent  of  the  bell  can 
be  varied  by  the  adjustment  of  the  cock  11  on 
line  10,  and  where  it  is  desired,  weights  are  pro- 
vided which  suspend  at  various  heights  from  the 
top  frame  of  the  holder  and  rest  on  the  bell 
throughout  a  desired  portion  of  its  travel  and 
increase  the  rate  of  movement  accordingly. 

A  slight  modification  of  this  arrangement  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  19,  in  which  an  additional 
holder  17  and  bell  18  is  provided,  and  has  inlet 
connections  19  to  pipe  9  and  outlet  20  to  the 
throat  of  a  meter  21  interposed  in  the  blast  line. 
The  stem  22  of  the  holder  18  is  connected  by  a 
short  link  23  with  one  end  of  the  floating  lever 
24,  which  leads  to  the  stem  25  of  bell  4  in  holder 
3,  and  a  link  26  connected  with  lever  14  is  in 
communication  with  arm  6  of  damper  7.  In  the 
operation  of  this  arrangement  the  bell  4  is  in 
its  raised  position  at  the  beginning  of  the  blow 
and  the  bell  18  in  its  lowest  position,  and  on 
opening  the  blast  valve  2  the  three-way  cock  8 
is  operated  so  that  the  bell  4  descends  and  opens 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


63 


64  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

the  damper  7  as  in  the  previous  arrangement. 
This  action  causes  air  to  pass  through  venturi 
meter  which  produces  a  differential  pressure 
across  such  meter  and  tends  to  raise  the  bell  18, 
and  in  turn  close  damper  7.  It  is  obvious,  then, 
that  by  the  adjustment  of  these  bells  and  levers 
the  flow  of  air  can  be  regulated  to  any  desired 
portion  at  any  part  of  the  blow,  and  if  the  blast 
pressure  in  the  line  increases  the  differential 
pressure  across  the  meter  will  also  increase  and 
thereby  raise  the  bell  18  and  close  damper  7  and 
reduce  the  flow  of  air  to  the  normal  requirement. 

STARTING  AND  WORKING  A  SET. 

The  purpose  of  the  double  superheater  is  to 
increase  the  contact  surface  in  fixing  the  oil,  and 
also  to  carry  the  blast  gases  away  from  the  oper- 
ating floor  and  thereby  minimize  the  risk  of  dan- 
ger to  the  attendant.  This  form  of  apparatus 
is  erected  by  a  number  of  makers,  and  a  common 
example  is  shown  in  Fig.  20.  When  a  new  set 
is  put  in  operation  it  should  first  be  carefully 
dried  out  by  covering  the  grate  bars  of  the  gen- 
erator with  six  or  eight  inches  of  coke,  adding 
about  one  foot  of  shavings  and  dry  wood  and  a 
portion  of  coal  or  coke.  A  fire  is  then  started 
with  the  charging  door  of  the  generator  open 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  65 

until  a  good  body  of  fire  has  been  obtained,  after 
which  the  charging  door  may  be  closed  and  the 
heat  allowed  to  pass  through  the  machine,  care 
being  taken  to  effect  a  gradual  drying  by  check- 
ing the  draft  at  the  ash  pit  doors.  If  the  time 
is  available  it  is  advisable  to  allow  two  or  three 
days  in  drying  out  a  new  set,  although,  if  neces- 
sary, this  period  can  be  reduced  to  a  few  hours 
by  careful  management  without  injury  to  the 
plant.  When  the  set  is  being  dried  gradually 
the  body  of  fire  should  be  kept  at  about  two  feet, 
and  each  time  fuel  is  added  care  must  be  exer- 
cised to  light  the  gases  at  the  charging  door 
before  opening  wide,  or  an  explosion  will  result. 
When  the  shell  of  the  carburetter  is  warm  the 
machine  may  be  put  under  blast,  and  in  prepara- 
tion of  this  the  fire  is  charged  well  up  and  the 
clinkering  and  ash  pit  doors  securely  fastened. 
After  the  blast  has  been  on  for  more  than  ten 
minutes,  the  bottom  steam  valve  should  be 
slightly  opened  to  prevent  overheating  of  the 
brickwork  in  the  lower  part  of  the  generator, 
and  when  a  flame  can  be  seen  in  the  top  of  the 
generator  through  the  sight  cock,  the  carburetter 
blast  valve  should  be  opened,  care  being  taken 
to  open  only  very  slightly  until  a  flame  appears 
in  the  top  of  the  chamber.  The  carburetter 
being  lit  off.  it  is  then  advisable  to  light  the  gas 


66  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

jet  or  pilot  light  at  the  stack  valve  on  top  of  the 
superheater,  as  this  serves  as  a  guide  to  the 
attendant  by  igniting  unburnt  gases  as  they 
issue  from  the  machine,  and  when  a  blue  flame 
is  seen  at  the  stack  valve  it  is  necessary  for  the 
attendant  to  increase  the  supply  of  air  in  the 
carburetter  and  effect  complete  combustion 
within  the  machine.  When  the  carburetter  has 
reached  a  red  heat  it  is  time  to  look  for  a  blue 
flame  in  the  bottom  of  the  superheater,  and  when 
such  appears  the  superheater  air  blast  should 
be  raised  and  when  ignited  the  carburetter  blast 
should  be  lowered  to  allow  a  portion  of  combus- 
tible gases  to  be  burned  in  the  superheater.  A 
method  sometimes  adopted  in  lighting  off  the 
superheater  is  for  one  man  to  pass  a  red  hot 
bar  or  pipe  through  the  sight  cock  while  another 
man  opens  the  air  supply,  but  this  method  is 
not  to  be  advised  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
man  holding  the  pipe  is  in  danger  of  flying 
sparks  when  the  gas  ignites,  and  it  is  certainly 
not  necessary  to  an  experienced  gasmaker. 

After  the  superheater  has  reached  a  red  heat, 
the  air  blasts  can  be  cut  off  and  a  run  of  blue 
gas  made  by  passing  steam  through  the  gene- 
rator, and  this  should  proceed  by  first  closing 
the  superheater  air  blast,  then  the  carburetter, 
and  finally  the  generator,  after  which  the  steam 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


68  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

valve  is  opened  slightly,  the  stack  valve  closed, 
and  the  steam  valve  adjusted  according  to  the 
gauge. 

It  may  here  be  stated  that  the  operator's  gauge 
board  is  usually  placed  in  a  position  so  that  it 
can  be  seen  at  all  times  during  the  operation  of 
the  plant,  and  consists  of  a  series  of  water  col- 
umns, Fig.  21,  which  indicate  the  pressure  of 
the  machine  in  inches  at  different  parts  in  the 
order  of  generator  1,  carburetter  2,  superheater 
3,  and  seal  box  4,  the  highest  pressure  being 
seen  on  the  generator  gauge  and  decreasing  in 
order  to  the  seal  box.  The  board  is  also  pro- 
vided with  steam  gauges  or  meters  5  and  6  for 
up  and  down  runs,  respectively,  air  meter  7,  oil 
pressure  gauge  8,  and  indicating  pyrometer  9, 
whilst  on  a  stand  near  the  oil  meter  is  placed. 

When  the  run  of  gas  is  put  on  the  operator 
should  immediately  observe  the  pressures  indi- 
cated, and  if  an  unusual  pressure  is  seen,  the 
steam  should  be  immediately  cut  off  until  the 
cause  has  been  ascertained,  which  generally  may 
be  a  closed  valve  or  an  excess  of  condensation  in 
the  drip  pot  between  the  machine  and  relief 
holder.  It  is  advisable  to  see,  at  this  point,  that 
water  is  passing  through  the  scrubber  and  con- 
denser, and  special  care  should  be  taken  in  see- 
ing that  water  is  passing  into  the  seal  box  before 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


69 


the  run  is  taken  off,  or  gas  will  return  and 
escape  into  the  atmosphere  when  the  stack  valve 
is  opened.  After  two  or  three  runs  of  blue  water 


gas  have  been  made  the  temperature  of  the  car- 
buretter should  be  high  enough  to  break  up  the 
oil  to  the  required  extent,  and  on  the  third  or 


70  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

fourth  run  the  oil  is  admitted,  when  a  greater 
pressure  will  be  seen  on  the  water  column 
gauges.  About  one-half  minute  before  the  end 
of  the  run  the  oil  is  cut  off,  and  the  spray  wiped 
out  by  passing  steam  through  it  for  a  few  sec- 
onds. When  the  machine  is  in  full  working  con- 
dition the  operator  should  pay  frequent  atten- 
tion to  the  nature  of  the  overflow  at  the  seal  pot 
for  the  appearance  of  lampblack,  which  is  seen 
when  the  heats  are  too  high,  or  for  light  tars 
when  the  heats  are  too  low. 

OPERATING  CONDITIONS. 

The  length  of  the  air  blast  and  runs  of  gas 
depend  on  various  conditions,  such  as  the  nature 
of  fuel  used,  power  of  the  blasting  plant,  quality 
of  gas  desired,  and  quality  of  fuels  used.  In  the 
early  stages  of  the  internal  combustion  system 
it  was  customary  to  blast  for  20  minutes  or  more 
and  make  runs  of  gas  for  30  minutes,  but  with 
the  development  of  the  process  the  tendency  has 
been  to  reduce  the  length  of  the  cycle  to  the 
present  day  rate,  which  may  be  taken  on  an  aver- 
age of  three  minutes'  blasting  and  five  minutes' 
gasmaking,  with  a  blast  pressure  of  20  inches  of 
water  on  the  gauge.  The  steam  is  admitted  in 
accordance  with  the  steam  meter,  whilst  air  is 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  71 

admitted  to  the  carburetter  in  accordance  with 
the  differential  air  meter,  and  a  pressure  of 
about  45  pounds  per  square  inch  is  kept  on  the 
oil  line.  The  temperature  of  the  carburetter  and 
superheater  varies,  of  course,  with  the  grade  of 
oil,  and  may  be  taken,  on  the  average,  at  1,400° 
F.  in  the  carburetter,  with  about  100°  F.  less  in 
the  superheater  at  the  beginning  of  the  run.  The 
gasmaker  is  provided  with  printed  sheets  to 
record  the  times  of  operation  of  the  machine, 
check  the  oil  meter  at  the  end  of  each  run,  record 
the  amount  of  fuel,  and  frequently  record  the 
temperatures  of  the  carburetter  and  superheater. 
In  the  smaller  works  he  has  also  frequently  to 
check  the  reading  of  the  station  meter  about 
every  hour,  and  compute  the  amount  of  gas  per 
run  with  the  quantity  of  oil  per  1,000  cubic  feet. 

CHAPTER   IV. 

THE  VERTICAL  APPARATUS. 

A  design  of  apparatus  that  has  met  with 
marked  success  is  the  vertical  type,  the  most 
important  of  which  is  the  Williamson's.  In  this 
plant  the  carburetter  and  superheater  are 
arranged  in  a  vertical  plane  with  the  generator, 
the  object  of  which  is  simplicity  of  construction 
and  operation,  reduction  of  ground  area,  and  a 


72 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 

•**: 

** 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  73 

more  thorough  uniting  of  vapors  in  the  car- 
buretter and  superheater  by  passing  through  a 
deeper  surface  of  checkerbrick. 

In  Fig.  22  is  shown  a  sectional  elevation  of 
one  form  of  apparatus  in  which  1  is  the  air  blast 
line  supplying  pipe  2,  which  is  provided  with  a 
valve  3,  which  is  usually  of  the  ordinary  gate 
type.  The  pipe  2  leads  into  header  4,  which  in 
turn  communicates  with  the  generator  by  means 
of  a  series  of  partitions  5,  each  of  which  are  pro- 
vided with  a  series  of  slots  for  projecting  jets  of 
air  into  the  ash  box  6  beneath  the  grate  of  the 
generator,  which  rests  on  a  cross  bar  7,  sup- 
ported on  the  wall.  The  outlet  of  the  generator 
is  provided  at  8  and  is  controlled  by  valve  9, 
which  is  of  special  construction,  as  described 
later.  A  connection  10  leads  into  the  mixing 
chamber  at  the  top  of  the  carburetter,  and  a  port 
11  is  provided  in  the  said  chamber  for  the  admis- 
sion of  secondary  air,  and  there  is  also  an  oil 
spray  12  connected  to  a  pipe  13  through  which 
the  oil  is  passed.  The  carburetter  14  is  filled 
with  checkerbrick  as  in  the  usual  manner,  and 
has  communication  at  its  lower  end  through 
passages  15,  Fig.  23,  into  receiving  chamber  16, 
into  which  the  gases  descend  and  commingle 
before  entering  the  superheater.  The  dividing 
wall  17,  which  separates  the  carburetter  from 


74 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


the  superheater,  extends  the  whole  length  of  tne 
chambers,  and  has  openings  18,  which  furnish 
communication  between  the  receiving  chamber 
16  and  discharge  chamber  19,  the  latter  of  which 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  75 

leads  into  superheater  20  by  way  of  passage  21. 
The  superheater  is  filled  with  checkerbrick  as 
in  the  standard  type,  and  the  fixed  gases  are  dis- 
charged into  chamber  22,  which  leads  to  seal  box 
23  by  way  of  pipe  24.  The  shell  of  the  carbu- 
retter and  superheater  is  of  the  usual  type  and 
is  a  continuation  of  the  generator  shell,  and  is 
provided  with  a  lining  of  firebrick  or  other 
refractory  material,  and  is  separated  from  the 
wall  of  the  generator  by  means  of  an  arch  of 
special  design.  The  blast  gases  leave  the  machine 
through  passage  25  and  stack  valve  26,  and  pass 
into  the  atmosphere  through  the  stack  27.  The 
stack  valve  is  mounted  on  wheels  and  rests  on  a 
track  28,  supported  by  swinging  links,  the  lower 
ends  of  which  are  mounted  in  pivot  plates  on 
the  top  binding  plate  of  the  wall  of  the  machine. 
The  stack  valve  or  cap  can  be  moved  by  means 
of  levers  which  are  connected  to  a  pivot  of  one 
of  the  said  links,  and  is  actuated  by  a  chain  so 
that  by  moving  the  lever  downwards  the  rails 
and  cap  are  elevated,  and  by  moving  the  lever 
upwards  the  rails  and  cap  are  lowered.  In  order 
to  move  the  cap  at  the  end  of  the  blow  and  run 
there  is  provided  a  draw  bar  29,  which  is  pivoted 
to  ears  on  the  cap,  and  connected  by  links  30 
with  a  rock  shaft  mounted  in  ears,  and  having 
connected  therewith  a  lever  31,  which  is  moved 


76 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  77 

by  a  chain  running  over  a  pulley  attached  to  a 
girder  at  the  top  of  the  building  and  another 
pulley  on  the  operating  floor.  In  some  installa- 
tions of  this  apparatus  the  construction  of  the 
carburetter  and  superheater  is  slightly  modified, 
as  illustrated  in  Fig.  24,  where,  instead  of  the 
blast  gases  entering  the  mixing  chamber  at  the 
top  of  the  carburetter,  they  are  led  through  out- 
let pipe  8  on  each  side  of  the  generator,  by  way 
of  valves  9,  and  into  chamber  13  on  one  side  of 
the  apparatus  and  chamber  19  on  the  other  side, 
the  said  chambers  in  this  design  being  separated 
entirely  by  a  solid  wall  17.  The  chamber  13  con- 
stitutes the  mixing  chamber  for  the  oil  and 
water  gas,  and  leads  to  carburetter  14  and 
receiving  chamber  16,  and  down  superheater  20, 
which  is  in  communication  with  chamber  19, 
from  which  the  gas  passes  to  a  seal  box.  The 
operation  of  this  design  is  the  same  as  in  the 
previous  arrangement,  but  different  in  the  flow 
of  gas  in  that  the  carburetted  water  gas  passes 
up  the  carburetter  and  down  the  superheater, 
and  the  blast  gases  pass  up  both  chambers  14 
and  20  through  valves  9  simultaneously,  and  out 
of  the  stack  by  way  of  25.  At  the  end  of  the 
blasting  period  the  pipe  8a,  which  leads  to  lOa, 
is  closed,  which  causes  the  water  gas  to  pass  oft 


78  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

by  way  of  8  and  10  and  up  the  carburetter  and 
down  superheater. 


WATER  SEALED  VALVE. 

A  novel  feature  in  this  apparatus  is  the  con- 
struction and  arrangement  of  the  outlet  valve 
from  the  generator,  which  is  frequently  known 
as  the  hot  valve,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  burning 
gases  pass  through  it  on  the  way  to  the  car- 
buretter. Briefly,  the  valve  shown  in  connection 
with  Figs.  22  and  24  consists  of  an  inclined  plate 
and  a  peripheral  rim  with  a  seating  face  on  the 
solid  plate  which  coacts  with  a  seating  face 
around  the  pipe,  and  is  located  in  a  casing  of 
ordinary  construction,  which  may  be  water- 
cooled  if  desired.  However,  in  the  later  develop- 
ments of  this  apparatus  a  specially  designed 
valve  has  been  adopted,  which  is  illustrated  in 
Figs.  25  and  26,  in  which  1  is  the  outer  casing 
communicating  with  the  adjacent  ends  of  pipes 
2  and  3,  Fig.  27,  which  leads  from  generator  to 
carburetter.  This  casing  is  of  spherical  shape, 
and  through  its  wall  the  nozzle  4  extends 
upwardly,  as  shown  in  Fig.  25.  In  the  opposite 
walls  of  the  casing  and  extending  inwardly 
therefrom  are  stub  shafts  5  and  6,  the  latter  of 
which  is  connected  with  a  lever  7,  Fig.  27,  and 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


79 


secured  to  the  inner  ends  of  the  shafts  5  and  6 
is  a  hood  8  of  semi-circular  shape  in  longitudinal 
cross-section,  which  is  adapted  to  swing  into 
and  out  of  the  position  in  which  it  extends  over 


80 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


the  open  ends  of  the  nozzle  4.  The  casing  1  pro- 
vides a  receptacle  for  water,  which  enters  at  9 
and  overflows  therefrom  through  a  pipe  10,  com- 
municating with  the  casing  at  11,  and  the  upper 


Elements  of   Water  Gas 


81 


82  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

end  of  the  pipe  10  is  connected  with  gas  off-take 
2  by  way  of  12  for  equalizing  the  pressure  on 
the  water,  which  determines  its  level  in  the  cas- 
ing. It  is  necessary  that  the  level  of  the  water 
is  maintained  at  a  point  between  the  top  of  the 
nozzle  4  and  lower  portion  of  the  hood  8  when 
in  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  25  for  closing  the 
valve  in  order  to  form  a  water  sealed  valve  capa- 
ble of  being  opened  by  swinging  the  hood  upon 
its  journals  to  a  position  into  which  it  is  sub- 
merged in  the  water  for  uncovering  the  top  of 
the  nozzle  as  shown  by  dotted  lines,  Fig.  25. 
The  valve  13,  Fig.  27,  is  of  the  same  construc- 
tion as  valve  14,  and  receives  its  supply  of  water 
for  producing  the  seal  from  the  valve  14  by  way 
of  pipe  10  and  overflows  at  15.  On  the  outer 
surface  of  the  valve  14  there  is  provided  a  pas- 
sage 16,  which  communicates  at  its  lower  end 
with  pipe  17  and  at  its  upper  end  with  pipe  2, 
and  thereby  forms  a  continuous  passage  between 
the  two  pipes.  The  two  valves  are  connected 
together  by  a  link  18  and  lever  19,  so  that  one 
valve  opens  when  the  other  closes.  When  the 
generator  is  put  on  the  down  run  the  valve  14 
is  closed  by  means  of  a  wheel,  which  simultane- 
ously opens  the  bottom  valve,  and  allows  the  gas 
to  pass  upward  to  pipe  2  by  way  of  passage  16 
into  the  carburetter.  The  nozzle  4  of  the  upper 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  83 

valve  is  lined  with  firebrick  or  other  refractory 
material  to  prevent  rapid  deterioration  by  the 
burning  gases  during  the  blasting  period,  and  it 
is  obvious  that  the  hood  or  valve  proper  8  moves 
in  a  water  seal  and  prevents  the  wearing  of 
metal,  which  is  usually  very  rapid  under  the 
influence  of  the  intense  heat,  and  simultaneously 
insures  a  substantially  gas  tight  joint. 

CHAPTER  V. 

TWIN  GENERATOR  SYSTEMS. 

In  the  twin-generator  system  the  object  is  to 
minimize  the  percentage  of  carbon  monoxide  in 
the  blast  gases,  and  that  of  carbon  dioxide  in 
the  water  gas,  and  it  is  usual  to  employ  two  gen- 
erators connected  together  at  the  bottom  and 
allow  the  air  blast  to  pass  upward  through  them 
in  parallel,  whilst  the  steam  during  the  run  is 
passed  up  one  and  down  the  other  alternately. 
In  the  earlier  installations  of  this  system,  how- 
ever, it  was  found  that  the  output  of  gas  per 
square  foot  of  grate  area  was  considerably 
reduced,  and  various  modifications  have  been 
tried  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  system  in 
this  respect  to  equal  that  of  the  single  generator 
system, 


84  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

CONVERTIBLE  APPARATUS. 

One  design  of  apparatus  possessing  a  number 
of  advantages  over  any  previous  attempts  con- 
sists of  two  generators  connected  by  a  common 
bottom,  in  which  the  gasmaking  steam  in  proper 
proportions  is  passed  simultaneously  either  all 
upward  or  downward,  or  serially  in  either  direc- 
tion, supplemented  by  steam  for  the  second  gen- 
erator. The  object  of  this  design  is  to  enable 
the  plant  to  be  worked  on  the  single  generator 
system,  and  simultaneously  obtain  the  advan- 
tages of  the  twin  system,  according  to  the  will 
of  the  operator,  and  the  valve  mechanism  and 
link  motion  is  such  that  the  plant  can  be  changed 
automatically  from  the  single  to  the  twin  system 
by  the  movement  of  a  single  lever. 

In  Fig.  28  the  generators  1  and  2  are  con- 
nected by  a  conduit  3,  which  is  provided  with  an 
optional  gas  outlet  4,  Fig.  29,  controlled  by  valve 
5,  in  addition  to  the  outlet  pipes  and  valves  6 
and  7,  and  6'  and  7'.  The  valves  7  and  7'  are 
actuated  by  levers  8  and  8',  Fig.  30,  which  are 
connected  to  shafts  9  and  9'  by  arms  and  links 
10  and  10'.  These  shafts  are  coupled  together 
and  connected  to  valve  5  by  means  of  yoke  11 
and  link  12.  The  lever  8"  is  operatively  con- 
nected by  link  13  to  clutch  14,  whose  members 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


86  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

14',  14",  and  15,  are  splined  on  the  shafts  9  and 
9'  and  coupled  by  snivels  to  the  connecting  link 
13  so  that  the  clutch  members  travel  along  the 
shaft  and  respond  to  the  movement  of  the  lever 
8".  The  members  14',  14"  and  15  are  adapted  to 
couple  simultaneously  the  shafts  9  and  9'  with 
the  yoke  11  at  15'  and  15",  and  with  each  other 
at  16,  so  that  the  valves  7,  7'  and  5  must  all  work 
together ;  7  and  7'  being  opened  when  5  is  closed 
until  the  clutch  is  disengaged,  when  the  shafts 
are  free  to  rotate  separately.  The  blast  valve  17 
is  operated  by  wheel  18,  through  gearing  19,  and 
controls  the  admission  of  air  to  the  bottom  of 
the  two  generators  for  upward  blasting  in  par- 
allel, when  the  blast  products  pass  off  through 
outlets  6  and  6'.  On  the  primary  steam  supply 
20  are  placed  a  series  of  distributing  cocks  21', 
21",  22',  22",  which  are  connected  with  shaft  9, 
and  operated  simultaneously  with  the  valve  7 
so  that  21'  and  22'  and  21"  22"  are  opened  when 
the  valve  7  is  opened.  The  valves  23',  23",  24' 
and  24"  are  connected  to  shaft  9',  so  that  23'  and 
23''  are  closed,  and  24'  and  24"  are  opened  when 
valve  7'  is  opened.  The  steam  conduits  are  pro- 
vided at  25,  25',  25"  and  26',  26",  and  26'  is 
formed  with  a  dual  connection  to  the  primary 
steam  supply,  and  the  valves  21"  and  23"  are  on 
one  branch  of  the  connection,  with  22'  and  24' 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


87 


88  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

on  the  other.  The  steam  entering  the  generator 
is  accurately  controlled  by  regulating  cocks  and 
meters  27,  27'  and  27",  and  28,  28'  and  28",  of 
which  27  and  28  control  the  upward  supply  in 
parallel,  and  27'  and  28'  the  downward  supply. 
In  serial  steaming,  however,  it  is  necessary  to 
increase  the  supply,  and  this  is  provided  by  the 
regulating  cock  29  on  the  loop  connection  26", 
which  automatically  adds  to  the  top  of  either 
generator  any  desired  proportion  of  the  quan- 
tity of  steam  that  is  available  for  the  top  of  the 
other  generator,  whilst  a  supplemental  bottom 
steam  may  be  had  if  desired  through  29'  and  29" 
in  conduit  26'. 

The  relative  position  and  object  of  the  valve 
mechanism  having  been  thus  described,  it  will 
be  seen  that  independent  regulation  is  provided 
for  each  supply,  and  that  the  setting  of  any  may 
be  varied  without  altering  the  others.  If  the 
operation  is  now  followed  it  is  seen  that  the 
disengagement  of  clutch  14  by  lever  8"  will 
enable  the  plant  to  be  steamed  upwards  in  paral- 
lel or  serially  in  either  direction  with  optional 
bottom  steam,  according  to  the  position  of  the 
valves  7  and  7'.  If  upward  steaming  in  parallel 
is  desired,  the  valves  7  and  7'  are  both  open,  and 
steam  from  the  pipe  20  passes  through  regulat- 
ing cock  27,  steam  cocks  22",  24",  21"  and  24', 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  89 

through  conduit  25  controlled  by  them,  and 
meter  28  into  conduit  3,  and  upwards  through 
generators.  If  it  is  then  desired  to  steam 
serially,  for  instance,  down  through  generator  1 
and  up  generator  2,  the  valve  7  is  closed  by  the 
movement  of  lever  8,  which  simultaneously  closes 
steam  cocks  22"  and  21",  thereby  closing  conduit 
25  to  the  bottom  of  both  generators,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  the  closing  of  these  valves  is  effected, 
the  cocks  21'  and  22'  are  opened,  which  admits 
steam  to  the  top  of  generator  1  through  conduit 
25'  and  meter  28',  this  supply  being  supple- 
mented at  the  bottom,  if  desired,  through  regu- 
lating cocks  29',  steam  cocks  22'  and  24',  the  con- 
duit 30,  meter  29",  into  conduit  3,  and  up 
through  generator  2.  In  reversing  the  direction 
of  serial  steam  the  gas  outlet  7  is  opened,  which 
closes  steam  cocks  21'  and  22',  and  opens  21"  and 
22",  and  the  gas  valve  T  is  closed,  which  simul- 
taneously opens  steam  cocks  23'  and  23",  and 
closes  24'  and  24".  This  order  allows  steam  to 
pass  through  cock  23'  to  top  of  generator  2  by 
way  of  cocks  27"  and  29,  conduit  25'  and  meter 
28",  supplemental  bottom  steam  being  admitted 
through  29',  21"  and  23",  the  conduit  26',  meter 
29",  into  conduit  3  and  up  generator  1. 

If  it  is  then  desired  to  change  the  operation 
of  the  plant  from  the  alternating  series  to  a  pair 


90 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  91 

of  generators  steaming  together  in  either  an 
upward  or  downward  direction,  the  lever  8"  is 
moved  back  to  the  position  shown  by  dotted 
lines,  which  causes  the  clutch  14  to  couple  the 
shafts  9  and  9'  with  yoke  11  at  15'  and  15",  and 
with  each  other  at  16,  and  simultaneously  causes 
the  gas  outlet  valves  7,  7'  and  5  to  work  together, 
7  and  7'  being  opened  while  5  is  closed. 

In  this  position  the  up  run  will  proceed  as 
previously  described,  and  on  moving  one  of  the 
levers  8  or  8'  to  the  dotted  position,  the  gas 
valves  7  or  7'  will  be  closed  and  gas  valve  5  will 
be  opened.  The  steam  cocks  21',  22',  23',  and  23" 
will  at  the  same  time  be  opened  and  22",  24'  and 
24"  will  be  closed,  whereby  steam  will  be  directed 
to  the  tops  of  both  generators  for  the  down  run 
in  parallel,  when  the  gas  will  leave  the  gen- 
erators by  way  of  conduit  3  and  valve  5.  It  is 
seen,  then,  that  the  movement  of  one  of  the 
levers  8  or  8'  will  alternate  the  generator  from 
the  up  and  down  run  in  parallel,  and  the  move- 
ment of  the  lever  8"  will  automatically  change 
the  working  of  the  plant  from  parallel  steaming 
to  serial  steaming  characteristic  to  the  twin- 
generator  system. 

It  may  here  be  noted  that  the  valve  5  is  of 
special  design  so  that  any  excess  pressure  in 


92  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

the  generators  will  cause  the  disc  to  be  raised, 
and  thereby  act  as  a  relief  valve. 

The  twin  system  has  not  been  very  largely 
employed,  although  it  may  be  said  to  possess 
certain  advantages,  and  in  the  writer's  opinion 
a  design  of  plant  particularly  adapted  to  meet 
the  requirements  will  in  course  of  time  super- 
sede the  single  generator  system.  It  has  been 
well  said  that  one  of  the  most  important  items 
in  the  manufacture  of  carburetted  water  gas  is 
the  control  of  the  generator  fire,  particularly  in 
keeping  it  in  a  healthy  condition,  and  every  gas 
engineer  knows  that  after  four  or  five  hours' 
continuous  operation  the  efficiency  of  the  plant 
is  reduced  by  the  accumulation  of  ash  and 
clinker,  which  also  interferes  with  the  make  per 
unit  of  fuel.  The  removal  of  this  clinker  causes 
the  entire  plant  to  be  shut  down  for  a  period, 
which  may  vary  from  10  to  150  minutes,  accord- 
ing to  the  condition,  and  where  water  gas  is 
made  exclusively,  as  in  many  districts  in  the 
United  States,  a  shut  down  period  of  two  hours 
or  more  at  an  inconvenient  time  of  the  day  often 
causes  the  holder  supply  to  be  considerably 
reduced,  and  also  interferes  with  the  normal 
working  temperatures  of  other  parts  of  the  appa- 
ratus. If,  however,  a  satisfactory  design  of  twin 
generator  was  adopted,  it  would  enable  the  plant 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  93 

to  continue  working  on  the  single  generator  sys- 
tem while  the  condition  of  the  other  generator 
was  made  healthy,  and  increase  the  output  of 
the  machine  by  at  least  10  per  cent,  on  the  same 
carburetter  and  superheater  at  a  comparatively 
small  outlay  of  capital,  and  simultaneously  com- 
bine the  advantages  of  the  twin  system  with 
those  of  the  single  system  when  both  generators 
are  being  operated  together  either  serially  or  in 
parallel,  as  illustrated  in  the  previous  example. 

CONTINUOUS  PROCESS. 

A  modification  of  the  twin-system  which  pos- 
sesses some  very  interesting  developments  is  that 
in  which  two  generators  are  operated  alternately 
in  conjunction  with  a  series  of  retorts  and  an  oil 
fixing  chamber. 

The  objects  of  this  apparatus  are : 

(1)  To  enable  gas  to  be  made  continuously. 

(2)  To  allow  the  use  of  cheaper  grades  of  soft 

coal. 

(3)  To  effect  distillation  of  the  coal  in  an 

atmosphere  of  water  gas,  and  thereby 
take  up  hydrocarbons  that  otherwise 
break  down  to  tar. 


94  Elements  of  Water  Gets 

(4)  To  control  the  temperatures  of  the  dis- 

tillation chambers  by  making  it  possi- 
ble to  use  a  definite  proportion  of  water 
gas  and  air  for  combustion,  under  a 
given  pressure  and  temperature. 

(5)  To  enable  a  constant  temperature  in  the 
oil  fixing  chamber  to  be  obtained. 

This  system  purposes  to  have  several  advan- 
tages over  any  previous  attempts  to  carbonize 
soft  coal  in  conjunction  with  water  gas  gen- 
erators, and  its  arrangement  is  such  that  the 
water  gas  generators  can  be  employed  with  the 
retorts  without  the  oil  fixing  chamber  and 
thereby  lower  the  quality  of  the  gas  in  the  event 
of  it  being  too  rich,  or  the  oil  chamber  can  be 
brought  into  operation  immediately  and  enrich 
the  gases.  It  also  embodies  positive  heating  of 
the  retorts  by  employing  a  definite  proportion 
of  gas  at  definite  heating  value,  and  thereby 
effecting  greater  uniformity  in  the  working  of 
the  plant. 

In  the  diagramatic  view,  Fig.  31,  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  apparatus  is  shown,  and  1  and  1' 
are  vertical  retorts  arranged  within  a  firebrick 
setting  and  provided  with  a  series  of  flues  as 
hereafter  described.  The  gas  leaves  the  retorts 
by  way  of  pipes  29  and  29'  and  pass  to  pipe  30, 
where  they  mix  with  water  gas  or  carburetted 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


95 


^ 7 


96  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

water  gas.  The  retorts  are  continuously  charged 
at  32  and  32',  and  continuously  discharged  at 
16  and  16'  by  rotating  buckets,  and  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  retorts  a  series  of  flues  20,  20',  21  and 
21r  are  arranged,  through  which  air  is  passed  to 
receive  a  primary  heating.  A  boiler  provided  at 
2  for  the  generation  of  steam  is  heated  by  gases 
coming  from  one  or  the  other  generators  3  alter- 
nately and  passes  steam  therein  through  pipe  4. 
The  second  water  gas  generator  stands  behind  3 
and  is,  therefore,  not  seen  in  the  illustration,  but 
is  similar  in  construction  as  the  one  shown,  and 
operates  alternately  with  it  on  a  three-minute 
blast  and  three-minute  run.  In  this  arrange- 
ment it  is  evident  that  one  generator  is  making 
gas  for  three  minutes  while  the  other  is  being 
blasted  for  three  minutes,  after  which  the  order 
is  reversed,  which  results  in  a  continuous  flow 
of  gas  through  pipe  13  from  one  or  the  other  gen- 
erator. A  portion  of  the  gas  entering  pipe  13 
is  passed  through  valve  12  to  pipe  11  to  be  met 
by  an  injection  of  oil  at  10  and  into  the  hori- 
zontal retorts  8,  which  extend  within  the  heat- 
ing flue  7.  These  retorts  are  of  various  dimen- 
sions, according  to  the  location  of  the  plant  and 
consequent  nature  of  enriching  agent,  and  are 
about  15  to  20  inches  in  their  cross  section, 
where  heavy  oil  is  used,  or  from  8  to  10  inches 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  97 

where  light  oils  are  used.  The  carburetted  water 
gas  emerges  from  the  retorts  at  9  and  is  passed 
into  coal  gas  main  30  or  to  a  relief  holder  as 
desired.  The  heating  of  the  plant  is  accom- 
plished by  admitting  air  from  main  5  through 
branch  6  into  generator  3,  which  results  in  the 
formation  of  producer  gases,  which  are  passed 
up  flue  7  from  one  or  the  other  generator,  and 
raises  the  temperature  of  the  retorts  to  the 
required  degree,  which  is  controlled  by  the 
initial  pressure  of  the  air  blast.  The  arrange- 
ment of  this  flue  is  in  a  vertical  plane  with  the 
generators,  and  the  resistance  of  the  gases  is 
thereby  reduced  to  its  lowest  degree,  and  by 
employing  an  high  pressure  blast  and  low  fuel 
bed  an  excess  of  oxygen  is  created  in  the  gen- 
erators which  makes  it  unnecessary  to  employ 
secondary  air  in  the  carburetter,  although  means 
are  provided  at  31,  if  desired.  The  products  of 
the  combustion  are  then  passed  into  chimney  28 
or  to  a  waste  heat  boiler. 

In  the  path  of  the  burning  gases  are  placed  a 
series  of  flues,  20,  21,  20'  and  21',  through  which 
air  passes  and  receives  a  secondary  heating  pre- 
vious to  combustion  around  the  coal  gas  retorts. 
The  path  of  the  air  is  up  branch  17  from  main  5 
into  flues  20,  20',  21,  21',  arranged  around  the 
lower  part  of  the  retorts,  and  then  through  the 


98  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

aforesaid  flue  extensions,  which  passes  through 
the  heating  flue  7,  and  on  to  the  combustion 
chambers  18  and  19.  A  portion  of  the  blue  water 
gas  fed  into  main  13  is  passed  through  valves 
14  and  14'  into  pipes  15  and  15',  and  then  to  the 
aforesaid  combustion  chambers,  where  it  meets 
the  heated  air,  and  the  products  of  combustion 
pass  into  flues  surrounding  the  vertical  retorts ; 
23  and  24  leading  from  18  to  downward  flues  25, 
and  finally  into  chimney  28,  whilst  flues  26  and 
27  lead  from  19  to  downward  flues  25',  and 
finally  into  chimney  28'. 

In  following  the  description  of  the  plant  it  is 
evident  that  the  operation  of  the  process  is  as 
follows:  The  generators  are  caused  to  produce 
water  gas  in  the  usual  manner,  part  of  which  is 
led  into  combustion  chambers  for  the  subsequent 
heating  of  vertical  retorts,  and  part  of  which  is 
passed  through  a  series  of  smaller  retorts  in  con- 
junction with  oil  to  be  carburetted  and  fixed,  and 
alternately  each  generator  is  caused  to  produce 
gases  for  the  purpose  of  heating  the  oil  retorts 
and  simultaneously  giving  a  secondary  heat  to 
air  used  for  combustion  around  the  vertical 
retorts. 

The  Fig.  31  is  somewhat  diagramatical  and 
various  modifications  employing  a  similar  prin- 
ciple are  made ;  for  instance,  in  one  form  the  air 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


99 


flues  20  and  21  are  not  passed  through  heating 
flue  7  and  the  producer  gases  are  thereby  used 
entirely  for  heating  the  oil  fixing  retorts,  whilst 
in  another  modification  the  combustion  flues  1, 


t 


t 

4 

t 

~ 

\ 


\ 


Fig.  32,  are  divided  by  a  wall  3  and  the  retorts  2 
arranged  vertically  so  that  the  carburetted  water 
gas  passes  up  one  set  and  down  the  other,  and 
again  the  combustion  chamber  7,  Fig.  31,  is 
divided  in  the  center  and  filled  with  a  checker- 


100  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

work  of  bricks  to  form  fixing  chambers  as  in  the 
intermittent  process,  and  each  chamber  operated 
alternately  in  unison  with  the  alternate  opera- 
tion of  the  generators  so  that  there  is  always  a 
flow  of  gas  from  the  carburetting  plant,  and  a 
continuous  distillation  of  the  soft  coal  in  the 
water  gas  atmosphere. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

AUTOMATIC  CONTROL. 

In  the  early  developments  of  water  gas  appa- 
ratus the  length  of  the  blasting  period  was  about 
20  minutes,  and  .that  of  the  run  about  30  min- 
utes, and  the  efficiency  of  the  apparatus  was 
usually  about  20,000  cubic  feet  per  square  foot 
of  grate  area  of  the  generator  in  24  hours.  The 
tendency,  however,  has  been  to  reduce  the  oper- 
ating cycle,  and  this  has  resulted  in  increasing 
the  capacity  of  the  set  and  simultaneously  reduc- 
ing the  amount  of  coal  per  unit  of  gas  made. 

At  the  present  time,  where  apparatus  is  man- 
ually operated  the  cycle  is  usually  about  eight 
minutes,  consisting  of  a  three-minute  blow  and 
five-minute  run,  and  occasionally  it  has  been 
reduced  to  six  minutes,  in  which  a  two-minute 
blow  and  four-minute  run  is  employed.  It  has 
been  found  that  this  cycle  puts  an  unusual  strain 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  101 

*••  ~*     -  ' .  '  '••',* '^ J  j  *  * 

on  a  gasmaker,  who  has  to  be  constantly  on  the 
alert  in  an  unhealthy  atmosphere,  and  the  influ- 
ence of  the  poisonous  carbon  monoxide,  com- 
bined with  the  strain  of  the  reduced  cycle,  has 
made  it  practically  impossible  for  a  human  ele- 
ment to  remain  consistent  to  his  post  and  oper- 
ate the  machine  to  accurately  timed  periods,  and 
many  engineers  regard  this  as  the  worst  diffi- 
culty in  the  economical  and  scientific  operation 
of  water  gas  apparatus.  Personally,  the  writer 
has  found  that  the  most  consistent  gasmaker  is 
in  the  habit  of  running  10  or  15  seconds  above 
or  below  the  recorded  time,  and  this,  when  com- 
puted in  a  day's  results,  is  liable  to  considerably 
effect  the  coal  and  oil  figures. 

BLAST  PRESSURES. 

It  is  evident,  however,  that  many  engineers 
could  not,  under  existing  conditions,  reduce  the 
six-minute  cycle,  owing  to  inadequate  blowing 
capacity,  as  it  requires  at  least  two  minutes  to 
get  up  the  heats  when  the  blowing  plant  is  being 
operated  at  its  maximum  capacity,  but  where  the 
necessary  air  can  be  obtained,  it  has  been  found 
that  even  this  cycle  can  be  reduced  with  advan- 
tage to  three  or  four  minutes  in  combination 
with  automatic  control. 


102  Elertnent$  of  Water  Gas 

The  capacity  of  the  blowing  plant  needed 
depends,  of  course,  on  the  size  of  the  machine  it 
has  to  supply,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  greater 
amount  of  air  that  can  be  passed  through  the 
fire  in  a  limited  time,  the  more  economical  will 
be  the  results  and  the  greater  will  be  the 
capacity  of  the  machine.  The  highest  volume 
of  air  passed  through  the  fire  within  the 
writer's  experience  is  approximately  300  cubic 
feet  per  square  foot  of  grate  area  per  minute, 
and  by  this  it  was  able  to  reduce  the  length  of 
the  blow  to  75  seconds,  and  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  this  volume  can  be  increased  with 
advantage  and  the  blasting  period  still  made 
shorter. 

One  of  the  most  important  advantages  of  high 
pressure  blasting  is  that  it  enables  the  use  of 
lower  grade  of  fuel,  owing  to  the  fact  of  there 
being  less  variation  in  the  temperature  of  the 
fuel  during  the  shorter  blow.  In  a  fuel  contain- 
ing a  high  percentage  of  ash  with  a  low  melting 
point,  the  ash  will  fuse  into  clinker  and  disturb 
the  efficiency  of  the  fire  when  a  blow  of  several 
minutes  is  adopted  owing  to  there  being  a  wide 
variation  in  temperature  between  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  blow,  and  if  a  shorter  cycle  is 
adopted  the  temperature  of  the  fire  will  not  be 
lowered  to  the  same  extent  during  the  run,  or 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  103 

need  not  be  heated  to  the  same  degree  at  the 
bottom  of  the  fire  before  the  commencement  of 
the  run. 

TEMPERATURE  CONDITIONS. 

With  the  advent  of  high  pressure  blasting  it 
was  found  advisable  to  reduce  the  depth  of  the 
fuel  bed,  and  thereby  correspondingly  reduce  the 
resistance.  In  existing  methods  where  a  three- 
minute  blast  is  employed  it  is  customary  to 
clinker  the  fire  about  every  8  or  12  hours,  and  in 
the  latter  part  of  this  period  the  depth  of  the 
clinker  and  unburnt  fuel  is  usually  one  foot  or 
more,  which  considerably  reduces  the  efficiency 
of  the  blowing  plant,  and  also  reduces  the  depth 
of  the  live  fuel  bed.  With  high  pressure  blast- 
ing, however,  and  a  lower  fuel  bed  the  resistance 
to  the  air  is  reduced,  which  makes  it  possible  to 
obtain  the  necessary  temperatures  in  about  one 
minute,  and  since  the  difference  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  fuel  at  the  bottom  is  not  so  great,  a 
less  proportion  of  ash  is  fused  and  consequently 
the  bottom  of  the  fire  is  kept  more  healthy. 
When  the  clinker  in  the  generator  is  one  foot 
or  more  in  thickness,  it  is  a  difficult  and 
laborious  matter  to  remove  it,  and  a  cleaning 
period  may  take  anywhere  from  30  minutes  to 
three  hours,  which  consequently  reduces  the 


104  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

capacity  of  the  set  per  24  hours.  In  the  high 
pressure  system,  however,  where  the  clinker  does 
not  fuse  to  the  same  extent,  it  is  found  that  by 
shaking  the  fire  about  every  25  runs  or  every  100 
minutes,  the  dead  or  fused  matter  can  be  worked 
through  the  grate  bars  in  a  comparatively  short 
space  of  time,  it  being  only  necessary  to  pass 
a  light  bar  over  the  grate  once  or  twice.  In 
an  experimental  test  in  which  the  writer  is 
acquainted,  the  average  cleaning  time  for  a 
period  of  four  weeks  was  slightly  over  one  min- 
ute per  clean  on  a  system  of  25  runs  on  a  four- 
minute  cycle.  Under  these  conditions  the  fire 
is  kept  practically  healthy  at  all  times,  and  the 
depth  of  fire  can  be  reduced  one  foot  or  more 
and  still  be  as  effective  in  the  decomposition  of 
steam  as  if  the  depth  was  kept  seven  or  eight 
feet,  as  in  existing  conditions.  It  is  also  found 
that  in  the  high  blast  and  low  fire  system,  the 
excess  of  air  in  the  presence  of  less  carbon  pro- 
duces a  greater  percentage  of  carbon  dioxide  in 
the  producer  gases  entering  the  carburetter, 
which  consumes  less  fuel  per  unit  of  make  and 
produces  a  larger  proportion  of  sensible  heat, 
which,  under  the  influence  of  the  high  pressure, 
is  almost  sufficient  to  heat  up  the  carburetter 
to  the  required  extent  without  the  use  of  sec- 
ondary air.  Under  these  conditions,  in  which  the 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  105 

rate  of  gasmaking  is  considerably  accelerated, 
the  temperatures  of  the  carburetter  and  super- 
heater have  not  such  a  wide  variation  and  conse- 
quently do  not  require  as  much  heating  in  each 
cycle,' and  whilst  it  has  yet  been  necessary  to  use 
a  small  portion  of  secondary  air  in  the  carbu- 
retter, it  is  believed  that  in  course  of  time  the 
secondary  air  will  be  dispensed  with  as  the  auto- 
matic and  high  pressure  system  develops  still 
further. 

ADVANTAGES. 

It  is  now  a  well  accepted  fact  that  the  adop- 
tion of  a  shorter  cycle  will  increase  the  capacity 
of  the  set  and  improve  the  oil  and  fuel  results, 
and  in  order  to  reduce  the  cycle  to  below  six  or 
eight  minutes,  it  is  necessary  to  use  high  pres- 
sures to  obtain  the  heats  in  the  minimum  time 
and  to  employ  automatic  operation  to  obtain 
the  necessary  speed.  Briefly,  the  advantages  of 
automatic  operation  may  be  summarized  as  fol- 
lows: 

(1)  By  accurately  timed  periods  coincident 
with  accurate  measurements  of  air  and  steam, 
the  operation  is  placed  on  a  basis  at  which  uni- 
formity must  result. 

(2)  It  enables  the  use  of  lower  grades  of  fuel 
containing  a  higher  percentage  of  ash  by  reduc- 


106  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

ing  the  ranges  of  temperature  between  the  begin- 
ning and  end  of  the  blow,  and  largely  preventing 
fusion  of  the  ash  into  clinker. 

(3)  It  produces  a  more  constant  temperature 
in  the  carburetter  and  superheater,  and  mini- 
mizes excess  decomposition  at  the  beginning  of 
the  run  and  the  production  of  tar  towards  the 
end  of  the  run. 

(4)  It  enables  fuel  to  be  fed  at  any  part  of 
the  run  or  blow,  which  allows  the  volatile  mat- 
ter to  be  driven  off  at  the  most  suitable  time, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  fuel. 

(5)  It  keeps  the  fire  at  a  uniform  depth  by 
frequent    charging   without   loss   of   time,    and 
thereby  minimizes  the  percentage  of  CO2  in  the 
water  gas,  and  provides  a  uniform  proportion  of 
CO2  in  the  blast  gases. 

(6)  It  enables  the  fire  to  be  kept  more  healthy 
at  the  bottom  by  preventing  fusion  of  ash  into 
large  masses  of  clinker,  and  enables  the  use  of 
a  rocking  grate  which  will   efficiently   remove 
smaller  particles  of  ash. 

(7)  It  allows  the  water  gas  to  be  driven  from 
the  machine  at  the  end  of  the  run  by  enabling 
the  blast  valve  to  be  opened  a  few  seconds  in 
advance  of  the  stack  valve. 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  107 

(8)  It  increases  the  capacity  of  the  set  by 
practically  100  per  cent.,  and  thereby  reduces 
the  outlay  of  capital  per  unit  of  make. 

(9)  It    eliminates    the   human    element    and 
reduces  the  cost  of  operation. 

( 10 )  It  reduces  the  risk  of  explosion  by  avoid- 
ing the  inconsistency  of  an  attendant. 

In  looking  over  these  facts,  the  experienced 
engineer  or  gasmaker  will  no  doubt  hesitate  in 
accepting  the  reliability  and  efficiency  of  a 
mechanical  or  other  contrivance  which  will  sub- 
stantially bring  about  such  radical  changes,  and 
the  writer  intends,  in  the  following  pages,  to 
discuss  the  relative  advantages  of  apparatus  at 
present  brought  forward. 

The  first  apparatus  of  which  we  are  aware  was 
designed  in  England  in  1911,  but  owing  to  a 
sudden  increase  in  the  rate  of  oil,  the  water  gas 
process  in  that  country  received  a  set-back  in 
competition  with  coal  gas,  and  little  interest 
appears  to  have  been  taken  in  the  development 
of  the  apparatus  for  this  reason.  Other  modifi- 
cations, however,  quickly  followed,  and  in  the 
writer's  belief  the  first  apparatus  successfully 
operated  on  a  commercial  scale  was  built  by  the 
United  Gas  Improvement  Company,  Philadel- 
phia, at  a  subsidiary  plant  in  Pensacola,  Flor- 
ida, in  1914,  and  it  is  now  a  general  belief  that 


108  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

an  automatic  and  high  pressure  system  will,  in 
the  course  of  a  few  years,  entirely  displace  the 
present  system.  The  reliability  of  this  belief 
.undoubtedly  depends  on  the  reliability  and 
efficiency  of  the  design  of  apparatus,  and  the 
following  chapters  have  been  arranged  to  bring 
out  the  fundamental  principles  governing  the 
respective  designs,  and  enable  the  reader  to 
firmly  grasp  the  elements  on  which  successful 
operation  depends. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

MECHANICAL  OPERATION. 

The  most  reliable  means  of  automatic  control 
is  undoubtedly  by  positive  action  on  the  valve 
mechanism  by  a  substantial  application  of 
mechanical  means.  In  this  chapter  it  is  intended 
to  outline  the  generation  of  blue  and  carburetted 
water  gas  from  the  automatic  standpoint,  and 
to  show  a  combination  of  apparatus  which  will 
serve  to  illustrate  different  principles  of  mechan- 
ical control  from  which  a  variety  of  modifica- 
tions could  be  made. 

CAM  AND  CLUTCH  MECHANISM. 

The  apparatus  referred  to  in  figures  33  to  40 
is  for  the  generation  of  straight  or  blue  water 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  109 

gas,  which  is  theoretically  a  mixture  of  hydro- 
gen and  carbon  monoxide  only  and  does  not 
contain  any  hydrocarbons  or  other  illuminating 
vapors. 

It  is  obvious,  then,  that  there  is  no  carburetter 
or  superheater  in  this  apparatus,  and  as  there 
are  no  combustible  gases  required  for  oil  car- 
bu ration,  it  is  usual  to  employ  a  higher  blast 
pressure  and  reduce  the  percentage  of  carbon 
monoxide  as  far  as  possible  in  the  producer 
gases.  Until  recent  years  the  producer  gases 
given  off  in  this  type  of  apparatus  were  dis- 
charged straight  through  a  chimney  in  a  vertical 
plane  with  the  generator,  it  being  claimed  that 
the  high  blast  pressures  employed  produced  an 
excess  of  oxygen  in  the  generator,  and  burnt  the 
gases  therein  direct  to  carbon  dioxide,  and  con- 
sequently the  gases  were  of  little  heating  value 
after  leaving  the  apparatus.  It  has,  however, 
been  repeatedly  proven  that  under  the  influence 
of  the  high  blast  pressure  and  comparatively 
small  area  of  contact  surface,  the  carbon  can 
not  be  completely  burnt  in  the  generator,  and 
also  that  the  gases  already  converted  to  carbon 
dioxide  contain  a  very  large  amount  of  sensible 
heat  when  passing  up  the  chimney.  In  the 
various  tests  made,  it  was  found  that  under 
average  conditions  from  30  to  40  per  cent,  of 


110  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

the  total  heat  was  lost  in  the  atmosphere,  and 
by  arranging  a  tubular  steam  boiler  in  the  path 
of  the  burning  gases,  the  heat  could  be  used  to 
substantially  generate  steam  at  a  most  conven- 
ient time.  This  arrangement  also  claims  to  have 
other  advantages,  the  foremost  of  which  are: 

(1)  It  increases  the  efficiency  of  the  steam 
boiler    by    reducing   the    distance    between    the 
boiler  and  gas  generator,  and  thereby  ensures 
dry  steam. 

(2)  It  insures  the  production  of  the  highest 
steam  pressure  at  the  commencement  of  the  run, 
when  the  carbon  in  the  generator  is  at  its  most 
active  stage  for  the  decomposition  of  steam. 

(3)  It  reduces  the  relative  cost  of  construc- 
tion, ground  area,  and  centralizes  the  plant. 

(4)  It  eliminates  the  necessity  of  an  atten- 
dant. 

(5)  It  reduces  the  amount  of  fuel  per  unit 
of  gas  by  employing  gases  that  were  otherwise 
lost  in  the  atmosphere. 

It  may  be  pointed  out  that  blue  water  gas  is 
not  distributed  commercially  for  illuminating 
or  heating,  owing  to  its  low  calorific  value,  and 
such  plants  are  used  chiefly  for  industrial  pur- 
poses. 

Referring  now  to  the  automatic  apparatus, 
Fig.  33  is  a  general  view,  showing  the  principal 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


111 


112  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

parts,  of  which  1  is  the  generator,  and  2  is  the 
charging  door  or  stack  valve,  which  is  pivoted 
at  3.  A  rocking  grate  is  provided  at  4,  which  is 
actuated  by  alternately  arranged  cams  on  the 
revolving  shafts  8,  arranged  beneath  the  ends  of 
the  grate  bars.  The  residue  from  the  fuel  is 
directed  on  the  grate  bars  by  side  pieces  10,  and 
on  passing  through  the  grate  is  discharged  into 
the  ash  pit  5,  from  which  it  is  carried  by  a 
worm  6  to  the  exterior  of  the  machine.  The  ash 
pit  is  kept  at  a  constant  level  of  water  to  seal 
the  escape  of  gas  and  quench  the  hot  ashes. 

At  the  top  of  the  generator  a  steam  boiler  11 
is  provided,  and  connects  with  gas  generator  by 
funnel  12.  The  steam  boiler  is  of  the  tubular 
type  and  is  heated  by  the  gases  from  the  gen- 
erator during  the  blasting  period,  and  by  water 
gas  burning  in  jets  from  a  burner  ring  17  during 
the  gasmaking  period.  The  funnel  12  has  open- 
ings at  13  therein  for  the  admission  of  air  to 
insure  the  complete  combustion  of  the  generator 
gases.  The  fuel  is  stored  in  the  hopper  14,  from 
which  it  is  discharged  at  intervals  by  means  of 
a  rotating  bucket  device  15,  which  discharges  a 
measured  quantity  into  chute  16  and  thence 
through  the  funnel  12  into  generator  1  when  the 
cover  2  is  raised  at  the  end  of  the  run.  The  gas 
used  at  the  burner  ring  17  is  supplied  through 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 
* 


113 


114  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

cock  18  and  pipe  9,  and  a  slide  valve  19  Is 
adapted  to  close  the  funnel  12  when  the  blast 
through  the  generator  is  cut  off,  so  as  to  cut  off 
cold  air  from  the  boiler  during  the  gasmaking 
period.  The  slide  19  has  a  series  of  small  open- 
ings to  admit  just  sufficient  air  for  the  combus- 
tion of  the  water  gas. 

The  apparatus  is  driven  from  one  source  of 
power  by  means  of  shafts,  gearing  and  so 
forth  in  order  that  the  various  operations  are 
accurately  timed  to  take  place  in  their  proper 
sequences.  The  driving  shaft  20  is  connected  to 
an  engine  or  dynamo  or  other  source  of  power 
controlled  by  governor  mechanism  so  that  the 
speed  remains  practically  constant.  The  shaft 
20  drives  through  a  worm  and  worm  wheel  21 
a  second  shaft  22,  which  in  turn  drives  through 
another  worm  and  worm  wheel  a  shaft  23,  which 
makes  one  revolution  in  four  minutes,  which  is 
the  assumed  time  of  each  cycle.  The  shaft  23 
drives  a  shaft  24  running  at  the  same  speed,  and 
this  in  turn  drives  a  shaft  25,  which  makes  one 
revolution  in  every  three  cycles  or  one  in  12 
minutes. 

In  Fig.  34  an  enlarged  view  is  shown  of  the 
valve  and  operating  mechanism  which  control 
the  flow  of  air,  steam  and  gas.  The  source  of 
the  air  blast  is  from  pipe  26,  through  a  safety 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  115 

valve  27,  which  serves  to  keep  a  constant  pres- 
sure, and  through  valve  28  and  pipe  29  to  gen- 
erator 1.  The  bottom  and  top  gas  outlets  are 
provided  at  30  and  31,  and  are  controlled  by 
valves  32  and  33,  respectively,  which  communi- 
cate by  a  connecting  pipe  34  to  branch  pipe  35 
leading  to  a  relief  holder.  The  steam  admission 
pipe  36  leads  from  the  steam  boiler  11  and 
branches  off  into  pipes  37  and  38  with  cocks  39 
and  40  therein,  the  said  pipes  being  carried 
through  the  outlet  pipes  30  and  31  into  the  bot- 
tom and  top  of  generator  respectively.  The  cock 
40  is  shown  in  section  and  turned  through  a 
right  angle  to  show  its  construction.  The  two 
cocks  39  and  40  are  adapted  to  be  operated  by 
toothed  sectors  41  and  42,  pivoted  at  61  and  62, 
and  connected  by  links  63  and  64,  respectively, 
to  rocking  levers  48  and  47,  which  are  pivoted 
at  50  and  49,  respectively.  The  rocking  levers 
47  and  48  are  also  connected  by  links  43  and  44 
to  rockers  45  and  46,  by  which  the  outlet  valves 
32  and  33  are  operated.  The  said  levers  are 
counterweighted  at  51  and  52,  and  have  rollers 
53  and  54,  which  work  respectively  on  cams  55 
and  56  on  the  shaft  25.  These  cams  are  shown 
in  detail  in  Figs.  35,  36  and  38,  wherein  the  cams 
are  separated  out  and  also  in  plan  on  the  shaft 
25.  A  third  cam  57,  Fig.  37,  having  three  pro- 


116  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

jections  is  adapted  to  work  against  a  roller  58 
on  one  end  of  a  lever  59,  which  is  pivoted  at  65 
and  connected  by  a  link  66  to  the  arm  of  the  air 
blast  valve  28. 

The  mechanism  which  raises  the  cover  of  the 
generator  is  shown  more  fully  in  Figs.  39  and  40, 
in  which  67  is  a  bevel  wheel  on  the  shaft  22, 
Fig.  33,  and  gears  with  two  bevel  wheels  68  and 
69,  Fig.  40,  which  are  mounted  to  run  loose  on 
the  shaft  70  and  are  held  against  longitudinal 
movement  by  fixed  straps  or  brackets  .  ( not 
shown)  engaging  in  grooves  71  and  72  in  the 
bosses  of  the  bevel  wheels.  The  bevel  wheels 
have  ratchet  clutch  faces  73  and  74  formed  on 
them,  opposite  to  which  are  ratchet  clutch  mem- 
bers 75  and  76  revolubly  supported  on  a  sliding 
bracket  77  and  working  on  keyway  on  the 
shaft  70.  The  bracket  77  is  adapted  to  be  moved 
to  and  fro  by  means  of  a  toothed  sector  78, 
pivoted  at  79  and  having  a  pin  80  at  its  rear  end, 
which  works  in  a  grooved  cam  81,  driven  from 
the  four-minute  shaft  23  by  means  of  bevel  gear- 
ing as  shown  in  Fig.  33.  The  grooved  cam  makes 
one  revolution  in  each  cycle  of  operation,  and 
has  two  principal  projections,  82  and  83,  which 
engage  with  the  pin  80  as  the  cam  rotates  in  the 
direction  of  the  arrow.  A  separate  mechanism 
returns  the  pin  80  to  its  mid-position  in  the 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


117 


118  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

groove,  and  behind  each  of  the  projections  82 
and  83  the  cam  groove  is  made  wide  for  a  space 
to  allow  time  for  the  returning  mechanism  to 
operate.  The  returning  of  the  pin  and  moving 
back  of  the  bracket  and  the  disengagement  of  the 
clutches  therein  is  effected  at  the  opening  and 
closing  of  the  cover  of  the  generator.  On  the 
shaft  70  are  two  pulley  drums  84  and  85,  over 
which  pass  chains  86  and  87,  the  chain  86  being 
carried  around  the  pulley  88  to  a  staple  89  on 
the  cover  of  the  generator,  while  the  chain  87, 
which  runs  in  the  other  direction  around  its 
drum  85,  is  connected  to  a  tail  piece  90,  project- 
ing rearwardly  from  the  cover  2  and  its  pivot  3. 
The  cover  2  and  the  tail  piece  90  have  projections 
91  and  92  respectively  upon  them,  which  are 
adjustable,  and  which  are  adapted  to  knock 
against  and  throw  over  a  weighted  lever  93, 
pivoted  at  94.  This  lever  is  geared  through  a 
bevel  gear  97  to  a  shaft  99  carrying  a  pair  of 
arms  96  and  98,  which  can  strike  against  a  pro- 
jection 100  on  the  bracket  77.  A  stop  95  limits 
the  movements  of  shaft  99  and  its  arms  96 
and  98.  A  catch  102  is  pivoted  on  the  projection 
101  from  the  support  for  the  member  78,  and  its 
forked  rear  end  engages  and  is  moved  by  the 
member  78,  while  its  hooked  front  end  coacts 
with  the  catch  103  on  the  cover  2,  to  hold  the 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


119 


120  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

cover  in  its  raised  position.  When  the  toothed 
sector  and  lever  78  and  the  bracket  77  are 
thrown  over  into  the  position  for  lowering  the 
cover,  the  catches  102  and  103  are  automatically 
disengaged  by  the  movement  imparted  to  the 
lever  78. 

Assuming  that  the  cover  2  be  lowered,  the  pin 
80  will  be  in  the  long  plain  portion  of  the 
grooved  cam  81  on  the  four-minute  shaft  and  the 
bracket  77  Avith  the  clutches  thereon  will  be  in 
the  mid-position  so  that  both  bevel  wheels  68 
and  69  are  running  idle.  The  projection  82 
strikes  against  the  pin  80  when  the  air  blast  is 
turned  on,  and  the  bracket  77  is  thrown  over 
towards  the  right,  and  the  clutch  74  and  76  are 
engaged  so  that  the  shaft  70  is  turned  in  one 
direction  of  rotation  through  the  bevel  wheels 
67  and  69.  The  drum  84  then  winds  up  the  chain 
86,  while  the  drum  85  pays  out  the  chain  87 
and  the  cover  2  is  pulled  up  until  the  catches 
102  and  103  engage.  At  the  same  time  the  pro- 
jection 91  on  the  cover  strikes  against  and 
throws  over  the  weighted  lever  93  and  this,  in 
fallijig,  operates  the  fork  98,  which  throws  back 
the  bracket  to  its  mid-position,  in  which  it  is 
held  by  a  spring  roller  device  104  engages 
between  curved  projections  108.  The  clutches 
on  the  bracket  are  now  out  of  engagement  and 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


121 


122  Elements  of  Water    Gas 

the  cover  remains  in  its  raised  position.  At  the 
end  of  the  blasting  period  the  projection  83 
strikes  against  the  pin  80  and  the  lever  T8 
releases  the  catch  102  from  103,  and  simultane- 
ously the  shaft  is  clutched  by  the  members  73 
and  75  to  the  bevel  wheel  68,  and  is,  therefore, 
turned  in  the  reverse  direction  while  the  chain  87 
is  wound  up  on  the  drum  85  and  the  chain  86 
is  paid  out  from  the  drum  84.  The  tail  piece  90 
is  therefore  pulled  up  while  the  cover  itself  is 
allowed  to  fall  as  its  chain  86  is  paid  out,  until 
it  is  closed  on  its  seating  on  the  top  of  the  gen- 
erator. At  this  time  the  projection  92  on  the 
tail  piece  90  strikes  against  the  weighted  lever 
93  on  the  other  side  thereof,  throwing  it  over  in 
the  reverse  direction  and  causing  the  fork  98 
to  move  over  in  the  other  direction  to  bring  the 
bracket  77  back  to  its  mid-position  and  to  dis- 
engage again  the  clutches  on  the  said  bracket, 
in  which  position  it  is  ready  for  the  next  open- 
ing of  the  cover  when  the  cam  again  moves  the 
sector  78. 

The  opening  and  closing  of  the  cover  is  accom- 
panied by  the  opening  and  closing  of  the  slide  19, 
and  this  is  effected  by  means  of  the  drums  110 
around  which  are  passed  chains  or  cables  109. 
Both  of  these  cables  pass  around  another  pul- 
ley 111,  and  one  cable  is  attached  to  the  front 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  123 

end  of  the  slide,  while  the  other  passes  around 
the  flue  and  around  another  guide  pulley  112  to 
the  rear  of  the  slide.  When  the  pulley  110 
rotates  the  cable  109  is  wound  up  on  the  said 
pulley  while  the  other  cable  is  paid  out,  which 
results  in  the  movement  of  the  slide  in  one  direc- 
tion. The  reverse  movement  of  the  shaft  70 
causes  the  slide  to  be  moved  back  again  to  the 
original  position. 

If  the  operation  of  this  apparatus  is  now  fol- 
lowed it  is  seen  that  at  the  same  time  the  cover  2 
is  raised  the  air  blast  is  turned  on  at  the  valve  28 
by  means  of  the  cam  57  on  the  12-minute 
shaft  25.  As  the  blasting  period  continues  the 
steam  boiler  11  at  the  top  of  the  generator  is 
heated  by  the  producer  gases,  during  which  time 
the  valve  18  has  been  nearly  closed  by  the  catch 
106  so  as  to  cut  off  the  supply  of  water  gas  from 
the  boiler.  At  this  period  the  rotating  bucket  15 
discharges  a  definite  amount  of  fuel  in  the  gen- 
erator, after  which  the  bucket  continues  its  rota- 
tion and  takes  in  a  fresh  supply  of  fuel  from  the 
hopper  14  in  readiness  for  the  next  charging, 
time  when  the  cover  is  again  raised.  At  the  end 
of  the  blasting  period  the  cock  28  is  closed  as 
the  roller  58  runs  down  on  the  smooth  part  of 
the  cam  57,  and  simultaneous  with  this  action 
the  cover  2  is  lowered  by  the  mechanism  pre- 


124  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

viously  referred  to.  The  closing  of  the  cover  also 
effects  the  closing  of  the  slide  19,  and  the  move- 
ment of  the  latter  turns  on  the  gas  at  the  cock  18 
by  means  of  the  catches  106  and  107,  so  that  the 
steam  generator  continues  to  be  heated.  At  the 
same  time  as  the  blasting  period  is  being  ended 
the  cam  56  causes  the  steam  to  be  turned  on  at 
the  cock  39,  and  the  outlet  valve  33  to  be  opened. 
This  puts  the  generator  on  the  up  run  for  150 
seconds,  after  which  the  cock  39  and  valve  33 
are  again  closed  and  the  blasting  period  recom- 
menced for  a  period  of  90  seconds.  During  the 
next  period  of  four  minutes  the  sequence  of  oper- 
ation is  repeated  for  the  second  up  run,  and  in 
the  third  period  the  steam  is  turned  on  at  the 
top  through  cock  40  and  the  bottom  outlet  valve 
32  opened,  which  puts  the  generator  on  the  down 
run,  after  which  the  shaft  25  has  gone  through 
one  period  of  rotation  and  the  whole  cycle  is 
again  repeated. 

ROTARY  VALVES. 

The  most  simplest  form  of  automatic  opera- 
tion is  undoubtedly  that  in  which  a  series  of 
rotary  valves  are  employed  to  control  the  inlet 
and  outlet  ports.  The  system  has  been  designed 
especially  to  effect  simplicity  of  control,  and  the 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


125 


126  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

valves  are  arranged  to  rotate  continuously  in  a 
given  period  from  a  constant  speed  shaft,  or  are 
provided  with  mutilated  gearing  so  that  the 
valves  are  actuated  in  a  rotary  direction  at  the 
time  period  desired,  after  which  they  remain 
stationary  during  the  run  or  blow  while  the 
shaft  continues  to  rotate  until  the  gearing  again 
engages  at  the  pre-determined  time  for  the  next 
movement  of  the  valve. 

In  addition  to  automatic  operation  the  same 
design  of  apparatus  embodies  a  new  feature  in 
connection  with  the  oil  injection,  in  which  a  cen- 
trifugal fan  is  employed  to  draw  blue  water  gas 
from  the  generator  off-take  for  the  purpose  of 
injecting  the  oil.  Briefly,  the  objects  of  this  are : 

(1)  To  atomize  the  oil  and  inject  in  a  fine 
mist. 

(2)  To  preheat  the  oil  by  direct  contact  with 
hot  gases  before  entering  the  carburetter. 

(3)  To  avoid  dead  holes  in  the  carburetter  by 
insuring  a  perfect  distribution  of  the  oil  over 
the  surface  of  the  checkerbrick. 

( 4 )  To  wipe  out  the  spray  after  each  injection 
and  prevent  carbon  deposits  therein. 

For  the  purpose  of  illustration,  the  constantly 
rotating  valve  system  will  be  described,  and 
Fig.  41  shows  a  vertical  section  through  part  of 
a  carburetted  water  gas  apparatus  in  which  1 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


127 


ILL 


128  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

is  the  generator  and  2  the  carburetter.  The  fuel 
is  supplied  from  the  hopper  3  by  means  of  a 
revolving  feed  device  4,  which  delivers  a  meas- 
ured charge  of  fuel  into  the  chamber  5  at  fixed 
intervals,  and  a  valve  6  allows  the  chamber  5 
to  communicate  with  the  generator  at  the  desired 
time  to  pass  the  charge  therein.  The  valve  6  is 
actuated  by  mutilated  gearing  from  the  shaft  7, 
which  rotates  once  in  each  cycle. 

The  valve  8  admits  air  from  the  pipe  9  to  the 
generator,  and  valve  10  admits  air  to  the  car- 
buretter by  way  of  inlet  21.  The  valve  12  con- 
nects the  generator  and  carburetter,  and  rotates 
synchronously  with  valve  8,  so  that  when  air  is 
admitted  to  the  generator  the  valve  12  allows 
the  producer  gases  to  pass  to  the  carburetter, 
and  a  few  seconds  later  the  valve  10  operates  so 
that  air  is  passed  to  the  carburetter  for  the  com- 
bustion of  the  producer  gases. 

Steam  is  admitted  through  the  pipe  13  and 
valve  14,  which  rotates  once  in  three  cycles  so 
that  the  steam  is  passed  twice  to  the  bottom  for 
the  up  run  and  once  to  the  top  for  the  down  run 
through  pipes  23  and  22,  respectively.  The 
water  gas  is  led  from  the  generator  by  way  of 
valve  11,  which  is  synchronous  with  valve  14, 
and  rotates  once  in  three  cycles  so  that  the  gas 
leaves  the  generator  twice  from  the  top  and  once 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  129 

from  the  bottom  in  accordance  with  the  admis- 
sion of  steam. 

The  valves  8,  10,  11,  12  are  all  operated  from 
one  shaft  15.  Oil  is  supplied  through  pipe  18, 
and  19  is  a  centrifugal  fan  which  draws  gas  from 
pipe  16  and  forces  it  through  20  for  injecting 
the  oil.  The  oil  and  stack  valves  are  operated 
from  the  shaft  7  in  a  similar  way  at  the  same 
time  as  the  operation  of  the  steam  and  outlet 
valves,  and  will,  therefore,  need  no  illustration. 

The  sequence  of  operation  is  the  same  as  in 
the  previous  apparatus,  and  briefly  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  process  is  controlled  by  two  sets 
of  valves  which  effect  the  blasting  and  gasmak- 
ing  period  at  the  required  time,  which  is  con- 
trolled by  the  speed  of  the  shafts  7  and  15. 

The  valve  11  is  similar  in  construction  to 
valve  14  and  is  shown  in  Fig.  42  through  the 
section  lines  A,  B,  C,  Fig.  41,  where  it  is  seen 
that  the  valve  has  three  ports  which  are  placed 
at  an  angle  of  120°  to  each  other,  and  open  the 
pipes  13',  14'  and  14"  in  order.  In  the  illustra- 
tion the  port  14"  is  shown  open,  while  the  port 
13'  will  be  opened  on  the  next  cycle  and  14'  on 
the  third  cycle,  when  the  valve  will  have  made 
one  revolution  and  the  order  again  commences. 
The  valves  8,  10  and  12  operate  together,  making 
one  revolution  in  each  cycle,  and  open  the  ports 


130  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

during  the  blasting  period  and  close  during  the 
gasmaking  period. 

In  this  design  it  is  obvious  that  the  operation 
is  of  the  simplest  and  most  uniform  nature  and 
that  the  plant  will  require  little  attention  or 
repair. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

ELECTRICALLY  CONTROLLED  PROCESS. 

CARBURETTED  WATER  GAS. 

In  this  design  of  apparatus  the  principle  of 
operation  is  that  of  electrically  energizing  a 
member  mounted  on  the  valve  to  be  operated  in 
accordance  with  a  pre-determined  cycle  which 
is  controlled  by  a  contact  making  and  breaking 
device. 

The  members  energized  consist  of  solenoids 
for  the  smaller  valves,  and  motors  for  the  larger 
valves,  and  by  their  use  the  automatic  means 
can  be  applied  to  any  existing  design  of  appa- 
ratus or  valve  mechanism  and  ensure  a  substan- 
tial and  efficient  operation  in  a  speedy  or 
retarded  manner  as  desired. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  scope  of  electrical 
control  is  very  broad  and  could  be  applied 
to  various  combinations  of  mechanism  with- 
out departing  from  the  principles  hereafter 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  131 

described.  However,  a  description  of  all  the 
means  of  application  is  impossible  in  a  work  of 
this  kind,  and  for  the  purpose  of  illustration 
the  most  simplest  design  will  be  referred  to. 

In  Fig.  43  is  shown  a  form  of  apparatus  ol 
the  usual  standard  type  with  regards  to  the 
generator,  carburetter,  superheater,  and  wash- 
box,  and  is  provided  with  the  usual  inlet  and 
off-take  ports.  The  charging  of  the  fuel  into 
generator  1  is  effected  from  the  hopper  2  by 
means  of  a  pair  of  rotating  drums  3  and  4,  the 
upper  one  of  which  has  a  pocket  which  receives 
fuel  from  the  hopper  each  time  the  pocket  comes 
in  the  position  shown.  The  drum  4  has  also  a 
similar  pocket,  which  is  adapted  to  be  turned 
into  a  position  to  receive  the  fuel  from  the  drum 
3  when  the  latter  is  inverted,  and  on  further 
rotation  the  drum  4  causes  the  fuel  to  be  dis- 
charged into  the  generator  at  any  period  of  the 
run  or  blow  which  is  found  to  be  the  most  appro- 
priate, according  to  the  nature  of  fuel  and  work- 
ing conditions.  The  shafts  of  the  two  drums 
are  connected  together  by  chain  gearing  and 
rotate  in  a  given  period,  and  since  the  drum  4  is 
adapted  to  discharge  into  the  generator  when  the 
drum  3  is  being  charged  from  the  hopper,  the  two 
drums  prevent  the  escape  of  any  gas  when  charg- 
ing is  taking  place,  whilst  at  the  same  time  the 


132 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


Elements  of   Water  Gas  133 

heat  of  the  machine  is  kept  from  the  upper  drum 
and  storage  hopper  and  thereby  avoids  all  risk 
of  the  fuel  being  volatilized  before  entering  the 
generator.  The  lower  shaft  6  receives  its  motion 
from  the  shaft  5,  which  in  turn  receives  its 
motion  from  an  electric  motor  driven  through 
gearing,  the  last  element  of  which  is  a  worm 
wheel  7  on  the  shaft  5,  which  also  is  adapted  to 
give  motion  to  shafts  8  and  9,  on  which  are 
mounted  drums  enclosed  in  a  casing,  which  serve 
to  control  the  time  of  operation  according  to 
the  desired  cycle. 

The  carburetter  and  fixing  chamber  10  and  11 
are  arranged  slightly  different  from  the  usual 
manner,  in  that  the  two  chambers  are  enclosed 
within  one  shell,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  avoid 
unnecessary  loss  of  heat,  and  the  admission  of 
air  to  these  chambers  is  controlled  by  a  valve 
actuated  by  solenoid  13. 

The  solenoids  12,  13  and  14  each  comprise  a 
coil  18,  partially  enclosed  in  an  iron  casing  19, 
fixed  in  a  certain  position  so  that  the  coil  acts 
when  energized  upon  armatures  20,  carried  upon 
frames  21,  which  are  of  brass  or  other  non-mag- 
netic material,  and  is  pivoted  upon  the  axis  22. 
The  frames  21  also  carries  an  arm  23,  Fig.  44, 
which  is  adapted  to  co-operate  with  a  pair  of 
stationary  contacts  24  and  25. 


134 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


f  6J  6263 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  135 

One  terminal  of  each  of  the  coils  18  is  perma- 
nently connected  with  the  negative  main  26  by 
a  wire  27,  and  the  contact  plates  24  and  25  are 
connected  by  wires  28  and  29  with  contact  mem- 
bers, which,  through  the  intermediary  of  the  con- 
trolling drums,  are  adapted  to  be  put  in  con- 
nection with  the  positive  main  30  for  energizing 
the  solenoids.  Assuming,  then,  that  the  wire 
connected  with  the  contact  plate  25  of  the  sole- 
noid 12  is  put  into  communication  with  the  posi- 
tive main,  the  coil  18  is  energized  by  way  of 
plate  25  and  arm  23,  and  the  solenoid  attracts 
the  armature  and  moves  it  until  it  takes  up  a 
central  position  relative  to  the  iron  casing  19. 
As  it  reaches  this  point  the  arm  23  moves  off  the 
contact  plate  25  so  that  the  connection  with  the 
positive  main  is  broken,  and  the  solenoid  thereby 
becomes  de-energized,  at  which  period  the  inertia 
of  the  armature  20  causes  it  to  swing  past  its 
central  position  and  enables  it  to  complete  the 
end  of  its  movement  by  gravity.  In  the  com- 
pletion of  this  movement,  the  arm  23  is  brought 
in  contact  with  plate  24,  so  that  the  circuit  is 
ready  for  the  next  energizing  of  the  solenoid  for 
bringing  the  armature  back  through  the  reverse 
movement  to  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  43.  The 
solenoids  13  and  14  operate  in  a  similar  way, 
but  in  14  an  additional  device  is  provided,  the 


136  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

object  of  which  is  to  reduce  the  disadvantageous 
effects  of  self-induction  of  the  coil  18.  This 
device  consists  essentially  of  a  resistance  31, 


Fig.  45,  which  is  connected  with  wire  27  and 
also  with  terminal  32,  and  by  such  connection 
it  is  obvious  that  on  the  movement  of  the  arma- 
ture 20  the  arm  23  breaks  contact  with  plate  25 
and  makes  contact  with  plate  24  and  closes  the 
circuit  through  the  wire  28,  the  connection  to 
terminal  32  and  resistance  31,  instead  of  break- 
ing it  permanently  as  in  the  previous  example. 
In  order  to  produce  the  reverse  movement  of  the 
solenoid  with  this  additional  device,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  connect  the  terminal  32  with  the  wire  29 
instead  of  28,  and  to  change  the  connection  of 
the  positive  main  30  to  the  wire  28  instead  of 
wire  29  as  indicated  by  dotted  lines. 

The  oil  and  stack  valves  on  the  carburetter 
and  superheater,  respectively,  are  actuated  from 
an  electric  motor  33,  which  has  permanently 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


137 


connected  with  its  shaft  a  centrifugal  fan  34, 
which  draws  water  gas  through  the  pipe  35  from 
the  generator  off-take  36,  and  forces  the  gas 
through  the  injector  37  by  which  it  draws  oil 
from  pipe  38  and  sprays  it  into  the  carburetter 
in  a  very  fine  mist.  The  motor  33  also  has  on  Its 
shaft  an  electro-magnetic  clutch  39,  Fig.  44,  by 
which  the  shaft  is  adapted  to  be  put  into  opera- 
tive connection  with  a  pinion  40  driving  a  gear 
wheel  41  on  the  shaft  of  which  is  a  worm  42 


driving  a  worm  wheel  43,  on  the  shaft  44,  which 
actuates  the  oil  valve  45  and  stack  valve  46.  The 
shaft  44  also  carries  a  controlling  drum  47, 
which  is  referred  to  later. 

In  the  operation  of  the  motor  33  and  its  asso- 
ciated parts,  one  terminal  of  the  motor,  and  one 
terminal  of  the  coil  of  the  clutch  39  are  perma- 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


SSSS^SSSSSSSSS^^ 


^^^^^^ 


SSS$5S*S8SSsS5S^ 


^^:^$5S^^^^^ 


vS^^Ki^^^^ 


»9 


nently  connected  by  the  wire  48  with  the  nega- 
tive main  26.  The  connections  to  the  positive 
main  are  made  through  the  controlling  drum  47 
and  the  contact  members  shown  in  the  lower 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  139 

part   of  Fig.   44   coacting  with  the  main   con- 
trolling drums  8  and  9,  Fig.  43. 

On  opposite  sides  of  drum  47  are  mounted  a 
series  of  curved  contact  plates  insulated  from 
each  other,  the  end  views  of  which  are  shown  in 
the  upper  and  lower  parts  of  Fig.  46.  From  the 
side  view  of  the  drum,  shown  in  Fig.  44,  it  is 
seen  that  the  plates  are  mounted  on  helical  sur- 
faces, so  that  as  they  rotate,  they  gradually  press 
the  brushes  49  and  50  back,  and  then  permit 
them  to  snap  on  the  next  contact  plate  when  the 
end  of  the  first  contact  plate  is  reached,  which 
action  enables  the  circuit  to  be  quickly  broken. 
The  left-hand  end  of  the  drum  47  carries  four 
contact  plates  connected  together  in  pairs,  as 
seen  in  the  upper  part  of  Fig.  46,  and  the  right- 
hand  end  of  the  drum  has  two  contact  plates, 
as  seen  in  the  lower  part  of  the  figure.  From 
each  end  of  the  drum  two  connections  pass  to 
the  contacts  of  the  main  controlling  drum,  which 
is  adapted  to  put  them  at  appropriate  periods 
into  connection  with  the  positive  main  30.  When 
the  drum  47  is  in  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  46, 
and  the  wires  52  and  54  are  put  in  communica- 
tion with  the  positive  main  30,  the  motor  33  com- 
mences to  rotate  and  at  the  same  time  the  coil  of 
the  clutch  39  is  energized,  so  that,  in  addition 
to  driving  the  fan  34,  the  motor  also  rotates  the 


140  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

shaft  44  and  actuates  the  valves  45  and  46,  open- 
ing the  oil  supply  and  closing  the  stack  valve. 
When  these  valves  have  moved  to  the  required 
extent,  the  next  contact  plate  comes  under  the 
brush  49  so  that  the  circuit  of  the  coil  of  the 
clutch  is  broken,  which  causes  the  shaft  44  to 
come  to  rest,  while  the  motor  continues  to  rotate 
and  drive  the  fan  34.  The  stoppage  of  the  motor, 
accompanied  by  the  second  operation  of  the 
valves  45  and  46  at  the  end  of  the  run,  is  brought 
about  by  connecting  the  wire  51  with  the  posi- 
tive main  30,  and  again  energizing  the  clutch  39, 
and  causing  the  shaft  to  rotate  through  another 
quarter  of  a  revolution,  at  which  the  circuit  of 
the  coil  of  the  clutch,  and  the  circuit  of  the  motor 
is  broken  at  the  brushes  49  and  50,  respectively. 
In  re-starting  the  motor  and  energizing  the 
clutch  at  the  end  of  the  blasting  period,  the  wires 
53  and  52  are  put  in  communication  with 
wire  30. 

The  movement  of  the  valves  55  and  56,  Fig.  43, 
for  the  steam  supply  to  the  generator  is  effected 
by  the  rocking  of  the  armature  20  of  the  solenoid 
12,  through  a  lever  57,  actuating  a  pair  of  con- 
necting rods  58,  which  rotate  the  shaft  59 
through  pawls  acting  on  a  ratchet  wheel.  On 
this  shaft  there  is  mounted  a  disc  60,  having 
pins  projecting  from  the  two  sides  so  as  to  act 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  141 

upon  radial  arms  on  the  spindle  of  the  valves  55 
and  56.  The  pins  acting  on  valve  55  project 
from  the  rear  of  the  plate,  whilst  those  acting  on 
valve  56  project  on  the  front  of  the  plate,  and 
their  disposition  is  such  so  as  to  obtain  the  cor- 
rect timing  of  the  opening  and  closing  of  the 
valves,  according  to  the  desired  cycle.  In  the 
illustration  it  is  assumed  that  the  cycle  of  oper- 
ation is  two  up  runs  and  one  down  run,  and  four 
pins  are  provided  at  the  front  of  the  plate  so  as 
to  open  and  close  the  valve  56  twice  in  succes- 
sion, whilst  two  pins  are  arranged  on  the  rear 
of  the  plate  so  as  to  come  into  action  after  the 
four  pins  referred  to,  and  thereby  open  and  close 
the  valve  55  once  for  each  revolution  of  the  plate. 
By  this  means  steam  is  caused  to  be  admitted 
twice  to  the  lower  part  of  the  generator  through 
pipe  88,  and  once  to  the  top  part  through  pipe  87 
in  each  cycle  of  three  runs. 

The  main  controlling  drums  8  and  9  are 
approximately  cylindrical  in  form,  and  consist 
of  a  series  of  plates,  Fig.  47,  which  are  adapted 
to  strike  against  the  contact  fingers  indicated  by 
the  circles  in  the  lower  part  of  the  figure.  The 
plates  are  all  connected  together  so  that  a  posi- 
tive current  flows  through  them  all,  and  the  sur- 
face of  the  plates  are  partly  of  metal  and  partly 
of  insulating  material,  according  to  the  work  of 


142  .  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

each,  so  that  when  the  metal  portion  strikes  the 
contact  finger  the  current  is  transmitted  through 
the  finger  to  the  valve  mechanism  to  be  operated. 
The  surface  of  the  drum  is  not  perfectly  cylin- 
drical but  has  steps  form  on  it  in  front  on  the 
leading  edge  of  each  part  of  the  metal  portion, 
so  that  the  spring  contact  members  snap  quickly 
over  from  the  raised  part  of  insulating  material 
on  to  the  next  contact  plate,  and  thereby  estab- 
lish the  circuit  rapidly,  and  bring  about  a  cor- 
responding rapid  action  on  the  valve  mechanism 
with  which  the  respective  circuits  are  associated. 
The  form  of  the  drum  is  more  clearly  shown  by 
the  section  in  Fig.  48,  where  contact  plates  are 


shown  located  on  the  stepped  body  of  insulating 
material,  and  the  direction  of  the  drum  is  indi- 
cated by  the  arrow. 

It  should  here  be  noted  that  the  breaking  ot 
the  circuit  does  not  occur  at  the  drum,  but  at 
contact  members  carried  by  movable  parts  of 
the  apparatus,  so  that  it  is  not  very  material  at 
which  point  the  contact  plates  end,  but  they 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  143 

have,  however,  been  shown  as  continued  as  far 
as  possible  over  the  surface  of  the  drum  in  the 
direction  of  the  movement,  so  that  if  the  mem- 
bers which  have  control  should  be  accidentally 
put  back  in  a  wrong  position,  the  circuits  will 
be  closed  and  the  valve  mechanism  will  move  to 
the  position  with  which  they  are  due  to  occupy 
at  definite  parts  of  the  cycle. 

If  the  sequence  of  operation  is  now  followed 
it  will  be  obvious  that  the  proceeding  is  as  fol- 
lows: Commencing  at  the  beginning  of  the 
cycle,  the  contact  61,  Fig.  47,  is  put  into  com- 
munication with  the  positive  main,  and  the  con- 
tact 68  has  been  previously  connected  with  the 
positive  main  and  remain  so  connected  at  the 
time. 

This  causes  the  shaft  44  to  be  rotated  so  as 
to  close  the  oil  valve  and  open  the  stack  valve, 
and  simultaneous  with  this  action,  the  contact  62 
is  connected  with  the  positive  main  which  ener- 
gizes the  solenoid  12  and  causes  air  to  be  passed 
into  the  generator  through  the  pipe  90  by  the 
rocking  of  lever  57,  which  actuates  the  valve. 
At  the  same  time  the  movement  of  the  lever 
imparts  an  angular  displacement  of  the  disc  60, 
which  causes  the  steam  supply  to  be  cut  off  at 
one  or  the  other  of  the  valves  55  or  56,  according 
to  the  previous  run.  The  producer  gases  pass 


144  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

off  by  way  of  pipe  16,  valve  15,  and  pipe  36  to 
the  carburetter  10  and  superheater  11,  and 
finally  through  valve  46  and  chimney  92.  About 
10  seconds  after  the  contact  62  has  been  put  into 
connection  with  the  positive  main,  the  contact  63 
is  thus  connected,  and  accordingly  the  solenoid 
13  is  energized,  which  opens  the  valve  on  pipe  91 
and  passes  air  into  the  carburetter  and  super- 
heater, if  desired. 

The  blasting  period  having  been  thus  estab- 
lished continues  for  90  seconds,  when  contacts 
64  and  65  are  put  into  communication  with  the 
positive  main,  which  again  energizes  solenoids 
13  and  12  and  causes  them  to  cut  off  the  air 
supplies  to  the  apparatus,  and  simultaneously 
open  the  steam  supply.  A  few  seconds  after  this 
action,  the  contacts  66  and  67  are  put  into  com- 
munication with  the  positive  main,  by  which  the 
motor  is  started,  and  the  clutch  39  energized,  so 
that  the  shaft  44  is  caused  to  turn  and  close 
the  stack  valve  and  open  the  oil  valve.  The 
clutch  is  then  de-energized  by  the  drum  47,  pre- 
viously referred  to,  while  the  motor  continues 
to  run  and  drive  the  fan  34  for  injecting  the  oil 
into  the  carburetter.  The  condition  has  now 
been  established  for  a  run  of  gas,  and  this  con- 
tinues for  150  seconds  until  the  fuel  needs  reviv- 
ing by  the  air  blast. 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  145 

The  second  run  constitutes  another  up  run 
and  the  proceeding  is  exactly  the  same  as  just 
described.  When  the  drum  has  passed  through 
91/2  minutes  of  its  rotation,  which  is  equivalent 
to  the  two  runs  and  the  third  air  blast,  the  con- 
tact 71  is  put  into  communication  with  main  30 
and  the  contacts  69  and  70  are  connected 
together  which  produces  the  energizing  of  the 
solenoid  14  and  the  movement  of  the  valve  mem- 
ber 15  from  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  43  to  the 
position  in  which  the  pipe  16  is  cut  off  and  the 
pipe  17  opened.  This  operation  synchronizes 
with  the  closing  of  the  air  valve  and  opening  of 
the  steam  valve  55,  so  that  the  steam  is  passed 
into  the  top  of  the  generator  and  the  gas  passed 
off  at  the  bottom  by  way  of  pipe  17,  which  con- 
stitutes the  down  run.  This  condition  continues 
for  150  seconds,  when  contact  69  is  connected 
with  the  positive  main,  and  the  contacts  70 
and  71  are  connected  together,  by  which  the 
solenoid  14  is  again  energized  and  the  valve  15 
moved  back  to  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  43 
when  the  cycle  again  commences  for  another 
up  run. 

In  large  installations  where  considerable  fuel 
is  used,  the  drum  37  is  geared  with  the  shaft  5 
at  three  to  one,  so  that  fuel  is  charged  into  the 
generator  at  each  cycle  while  the  drum  makes 


146  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

one  revolution  in  every  three  cycles  in  order 
to  bring  about  the  up  and  down  runs  in  the  pro- 
portion of  two  to  one. 

BLUB  WATER  GAS. 

The  automatic  operation  of  blue  water  gas 
apparatus  by  electrical  means  is  practically  the 
same  as  in  the  previous  example,  and  the  pro- 
ceeding is  only  slightly  different  in  accordance 
with  the  different  construction  and  purpose  of 
the  apparatus. 

Keferring  to  Fig.  49,  the  part  96  is  a  tubular 
steam  boiler,  and  is  connected  with  the  gas  gen- 
erator with  a  flue  section,  which  has  a  series  of 
apertures  for  the  admission  of  air  for  completing 
the  combustion  of  the  producer  gases.  This  sec- 
tion is  also  provided  with  a  gas  burner  ring  con- 
trolled by  the  cock  83,  which  gives  heat  to  the 
boiler  during  the  gasmaking  period,  and  is 
adapted  to  be  almost  turned  off  during  the  blast- 
ing period  when  the  top  of  the  generator  is 
opened  at  80  for  the  flow  of  producer  gases. 

The  rod  of  the  bell  80  is  also  connected  by 
links  (not  shown)  to  the  apertures  in  the  flue 
section,  so  that  these  are  partially  closed  when 
the  generator  is  closed  and  opened  when  the  bell 
is  lowered.  By  this  means  the  air  supply  is 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


147 


148  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

reduced  to  the  boiler  during  the  run  of  gas,  only 
sufficient  being  admitted  to  burn  the  gas  at  the 
burner  ring. 

The  fuel  is  discharged  from  the  bucket  3  and 
to  the  bell  80  and  then  to  the  generator,  and  the 
bell  is  suspended  by  means  of  a  rod  and  chain 
on  a  segment  of  one  end  of  a  lever  81,  which  is 
pivoted  at  97.  The  provision  of  a  rod  as  one  of 
the  connecting  members  insures  that  the  bell  can 
be  forced  down  by  the  pressure  of  one  end  of  the 
segment  on  the  rod  if  it  should  be  held  up  by 
the  pressure  of  gas  or  otherwise.  The  lever  81 
is  connected  by  a  link  with  a  crank  on  the  spin- 
dle of  the  cock  83,  so  that  when  the  bell  is  low- 
ered the  cock  is  partially  closed,  and  when  the 
bell  is  raised  the  cock  is  opened. 

The  lever  81  is  actuated  through  solenoid  84 
through  the  intermediary  of  a  pin  on  a  crank  85 
working  in  a  slot  in  the  lever,  and  in  the  two 
positions  of  rest  the  line  of  pressure  acts  along 
the  line  of  crank,  and  thereby  exerts  no  turning 
effect  on  the  crank  so  that  the  weight  of  the  fuel 
can  not  force  the  bell  down  until  the  solenoid  is 
energized. 

An  additional  valve  98  is  provided  on  the  gas 
off-take  36,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  cut  off 
the  gas  holder  from  the  machine  when  the  bell 
is  lowered,  and  thereby  prevent  gas  from  return- 


Elements  of  Water  Gag  149 


99 


-23         29 


12 


28- 


nrr 


1001016Z66  lOZta  69  70-71 


150  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

ing.  It  will  be  obvious  that  this  valve  has  the 
same  purpose  as  the  water  seal  in  carburetted 
water  gas  apparatus,  but  inasmuch  as  blue 
water  gas  is  essentially  a  mixture  of  hydrogen 
and  carbon  monoxide,  there  is  no  tarry  matter 
to  be  removed,  and  in  certain  cases  the  seal  could 
be  eliminated  with  advantages  or  substituted 
with  a  specially  designed  washer-scrubber. 

The  valve  98  is  actuated  by  solenoid  99,  which 
is  similar  to  solenoid  84  and  operates  in  con- 
junction with  it.  The  solenoid  84  is  connected 
with  contact  100  and  101,  and  solenoid  99  with 
contacts  102  and  103,  Fig.  50. 

In  the  operation  of  this  plant,  a  controlling 
drum  is  employed,  the  principle  of  which  is  the 
same  as  in  the  previous  example,  but  is  slightly 
different  in  regard  to  time  and  action  in  accord- 
ance with  the  different  conditions.  As  pre- 
viously stated,  a  high  pressure  blast  is  usually 
employed  in  blue  water  gas  apparatus,  and  the 
blasting  period  is  reduced  to  one  minute  whilst 
the  runs  of  gas  are  approximately  three  minutes, 
which  makes  the  cycle  at  four  minutes,  or  one 
complete  cycle  of  three  runs  at  12  minutes.  The 
controlling  drum,  which  is  shown  diagramati- 
cally  in  Fig.  51,  is  driven  on  the  same  shaft  as 
the  charging  apparatus,  and  makes  one  revolu- 
tion to  three  of  the  latter,  and,  as  seen  from  the 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  151 

diagram,  the  solenoids  all  come  into  operation 
practically  at  the  same  time,  by  which  it  is  pos- 
sible to  simplify  the  connection  by  allowing 
solenoids  12,  84  and  99  to  be  operated  from  the 
same  contact  members.  The  diagram,  however, 


62  -O 

at-o 


is  prepared  on  the  assumption  that  it  is  desirable 
for  electrical  consideration  to  maintain  the  cir- 
cuits independent  so  that  they  are  not  connected 
together  except  when  the  contact  members  are 
on  the  metal  part  of  the  drum. 

In  view  of  the  sequence  of  operation  being 
described  in  the  carburetted  water  gas  appa- 
ratus, it  is  believed  that  a  detail  description  is 
not  necessary  in  the  blue  gas  apparatus,  inas- 
much as  the  action  of  the  controlling  drums  on 
the  solenoids  and  valves  is  practically  the  same. 
Briefly,  the  process  is  that  of  heating  the  bed  of 
fuel  to  incandescence  by  a  powerful  air  blast  for 
a  period  of  one  minute,  during  which  time  the 
steam  boiler  is  being  heated  by  the  complete 
combustion  of  the  producer  gases,  after  which 
the  air  blast  is  cut  off  and  steam  admitted 
instead  for  a  period  of  three  minutes,  during 


152  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

which  time  gas  is  generated  and  carried  off  to 
the  holder,  and  the  steam  boiler  is  heated  by 
water  gas  from  a  burner  ring  as  herebefore 
described. 

It  may  here  be  pointed  out  that  pivotal  parts 
connected  with  the  valves  and  solenoids  are  pro- 
vided with  counterbalance  weights  which  serve 
to  equalize  the  load  during  each  of  the  two 
strokes,  and  the  valves  have  also  the  lever  attach- 
ment, each  of  which  are  connected  by  link 
mechanism  to  a  lever  at  a  centralized  point  so 
that  in  the  case  of  an  electrical  breakdown  the 
valves  can  be  operated  by  hand,  and  by  centraliz- 
ing the  operation  one  or  more  valves  can  be  oper- 
ated simultaneously  and  thereby  effect  a  rapid 
changing  action  on  the  apparatus. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

HYDRAULIC  AND  AIR  SYSTEMS. 

HYDRAULIC  CONTROL. 

A  recently  adopted  system  'of  automatic  con- 
trol is  that  of  acting  on  the  valve  mechanism  by 
hydraulic  power  by  means  of  a  cam  or  tappet 
arrangement  which  controls  the  source  of  power. 
The  object  of  this  system  is  to  provide  means  by 
which  the  power  can  be  turned  on  in  a  rapid 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


153 


154  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

manner  by  the  movement  of  a  comparatively 
small  valve,  and  allow  the  water  pressure  in 
turn  to  act  upon  cylinders  and  pistons  which 
are  connected  through  link  motion  to  the  valve 
mechanism  on  the  gasmaking  apparatus. 

The  apparatus  valves  associated  with  this 
system  are  usually  of  the  slide  variety  where  the 
pistons  need  to  move  in  a  vertical  plane,  and  in 
large  valves  which  require  to  be  moved  through 
a  considerable  distance  in  a  limited  time,  a 
series  of  hydraulical  valves  are  provided,  of 
which  there  are  one  for  each  slide  valve  to  be 
operated.  The  hydraulic  valves  are  in  turn  con- 
trolled by  a  series  of  pilot  valves  10,  Fig.  52,  of 
which  11  and  12  are  the  inlet  and  outlet  con- 
nections. The  stem  of  these  valves  project  from 
the  casing  at  each  end  at  13  and  14  to  the  tappet 
arms,  and  the  valve  body  communicates  with  a 
double  acting  piston  and  cylinder  15  by  way 
of  16  and  17.  The  pistons  of  each  of  the  ele- 
ments 15  are  provided  with  hand  lever  18,  so 
that  the  apparatus  can  be  operated  by  hand  if 
desired.  The  valves  19  are  connected  through 
stem  20  with  the  pistons  of  the  elements  15,  and 
by  their  combination  with  the  valves  10  the 
pistons  and  cylinders  co-operate  in  such  a  way 
that  a  slight  movement  of  the  pilot  valves  10 
opens  up  large  fluid  ways  to  the  valves  19  and 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


155 


156  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

causes  the  slide  valve  on  the  gasmaking  appa- 
ratus to  move  quickly  through  a  comparatively 
long  distance. 

The  inlet  and  outlet  connections  from  valves 
19  are  provided  at  21  and  22,  Fig.  53,  and  23 
and  24  are  connected  from  the  said  valves  to  the 
apparatus  valves  pistons  and  cylinders.  The 
valves  19  are  shown  more  fully  in  Fig.  53,  and 
are  enclosed  in  a  suitable  casing,  which  is  con- 
nected with  or  carried  by  a  frame  25  that  sup- 
ports the  pilot  valve  pistons  and  cylinders,  and 
also  other  parts  as  hereafter  described.  The 
inlet  21  is  common  to  all  these  valves  and  also 
the  outlet  22,  and  the  casing  of  the  valves  are 
connected  at  26  and  27  by  means  of  suitable 
openings  which  constitute  inlet  and  exhaust 
ports.  The  opening  27  at  the  left-hand  end  is 
connected  by  a  port  28,  which  communicates 
with  the  outlet  22. 

A  pair  of  interconnected  cam  shafts  are  pro- 
vided at  29  and  30,  Figs.  52  and  54,  and  are 
geared  together  by  wheels  31,  32  and  33,  and 
move  in  the  same  direction  from  a  source  of 
power  which  is  usually  an  electric  motor.  The 
said  shafts  are  mounted  in  brackets  36  on  the 
frames  25,  and  each  shaft  is  provided  with  tap- 
pet or  other  projecting  devices  37  and  38,  of 
which  there  is  a  pair  for  each  pilot  valve.  The 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


157 


158  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

tappets  of  each  pair  operate  upon  one  of  a  pair 
of  spring  retracted  followers  or  tappet  arms 
39  and  40,  which  in  turn  operates  respectively 
upon  opposite  faces  of  a  head  41  on  the  pilot 
valve  spindle.  At  the  other  ends  of  these  arms 
a  roller  42  is  provided,  which  has  a  knife  edge  43, 
and  ordinarily  runs  on  the  rim  of  the  cam,  keep- 
ing the  knife  edge  clear  of  it.  When  the  tappet 
arm,  however,  is  about  to  drop  into  the  lower 
part  of  the  cam,  the  roller  first  runs  into  a 
groove  44  in  the  cam,  and  permits  the  knife  edge 
to  ride  on  the  wear  plate  45,  and  finally  allows 
it  to  drop  into  the  low  part  46.  This  results  in 
the  tappet  arm  being  quickly  moved  for  the  sub- 
sequent operation  of  the  apparatus  valves.  It 
should  here  be  noted  that  the  function  of  the 
two  shafts  with  their  respective  cams  and  tap- 
pets is  to  operate  the  pilot  valves  in  opposite 
directions,  and  the  position  of  the  tappets  is 
such  that  at  the  end  of  the  movement  the  pilot 
valves  are  left  in  a  position  relative  to  the  opera- 
tion of  the  gasmaking  apparatus  valves.  The 
regulation  of  the  shafts  and  their  cams  can  be 
made  by  disengaging  the  wheel  32  and  turning 
the  shaft  30  by  applying  a  crank  to  the  square 
end  47,  and  meshing  the  wheel  32  to  the  desired 
position.  The  shafts  29  and  30  drive  through  a 
pair  of  gear  wheels  48,  two  concentric  dials  49 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  159 

and  50,  which  serve  to  indicate  the  relative 
angular  position  of  the  said  shafts. 

A  shaft  51,  which  is  revolvably  supported  in 
the  frame  25,  is  provided  with  tappet  arms  52, 
Fig.  52,  so  that  when  the  shaft  51  is  turned  from 
its  normal  position,  its  arms  52  push  the  pilot 
valves  into  a  position  which  correspond  to  one 
of  rest  and  safety  of  the  valves  on  the  gasmaking 
apparatus.  On  the  shaft  51  there  is  also  an  arm 
53,  which  is  subjected  to  the  pull  of  a  spring  54, 
and  also  the  pull  of  an  electro-magnet  55. 

When  the  circuit  56  is  connected  with  a  live 
wire,  the  spring  and  electro-magnet  balance  each 
other,  and  the  parts  associated  therewith  are  in 
the  position  shown,  but  on  the  failure  of  current 
in  the  circuit  the  power  of  the  spring  predomi- 
nates and  turns  the  arm  53  into  a  position  for 
bringing  the  arm  52  into  action  on  the  pilot 
valves.  A  circuit  breaker  57  is  provided  in  the 
live  circuit,  and  is  connected  to  a  weighted  arm 
58  that  is  held  up  by  a  diaphragm  59,  which  is 
exposed  to  the  fluid  pressure  system,  which  oper- 
ates on  the  various  apparatus  valves.  By  this 
means  a  safety  device  is  obtained,  in  that  if  the 
power  in  the  fluid  system  fails,  the  circuit  is 
interrupted  and  the  safety  mechanism  controlled 
by  the  electro-magnet  comes  into  operation.  An 
oxtra  precaution  is  also  provided  in  the  form  of 


160  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

a  pair  of  centrally  pivoted  dogs  60  and  61,  Fig. 
53,  which  are  normally  held  in  their  position 
(dotted  lines)  by  springs,  in  such  a  way  that 
their  inner  ends  62  and  63  block  the  line  of  travel 
of  one  of  the  handles  18,  which  is  linked  to  the 
stack  valve  and  prevents  the  valve  from  being 
closed  and  thereby  leaves  the  apparatus  in  a 
safe  position.  The  handles  18  adjacent  to  the 
stack  valve  handle  constitute  the  generator  and 
carburetter  air  blast,  and  operate  the  tail  of  the 
dogs  64  and  65  when  pulled  down  and  turn  the 
dogs  into  the  position  shown  by  full  lines  in 
which  their  inner  ends  does  not  block  the  stack 
valve  handle.  In  this  arrangement  it  is  obvious 
that  the  stack  valve  handle  can  not  be  pulled 
down  until  the  generator  and  carburetter  blasts 
have  been  pulled  down,  and  when  all  the  valves 
are  in  the  up  position,  it  is  evident  that  the  air 
blast  must  be  cut  off  first  before  the  stack  valve 
can  be  closed. 

The  operation  of  the  process  according  to  this 
system  may  be  briefly  described  as  follows :  The 
speed  of  the  shafts  29  and  30  is  adjusted  so  that 
each  makes  one  revolution  in  each  cycle  of  opera- 
tion of  the  gasmaking  apparatus.  The  cams  38 
on  the  shaft  30  are  set  in  respect  to  each  other 
that  they  cause  the  mechanism  with  which  they 
coact  to  move  the  valves  at  the  end  of  the  run 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  161 

and  commencement  of  the  blast,  and  the  cams  37 
on  the  shaft  29  are  set  in  their  respective  order 
to  move  the  valves  at  the  end  of  the  blast  and 
commencement  of  the  run. 

This  condition  continues  while  the  mechan- 
ism is  in  working  order,  and  in  the  event  of  a 
failing  of  power  on  the  shafts,  the  safety  device 
comes  into  operation  and  leaves  the  apparatus 
in  a  safe  position,  whereafter  the  machine  can 
be  operated  manually  by  levers  18  until  the  auto- 
matic mechanism  is  repaired. 

AIR  CONTROL. 

A  modification  of  the  latter  apparatus  is  that 
in  which  hydraulic  pistons  are  employed  to 
actuate  the  apparatus  valves,  while  the  control 
is  affected  by  means  of  air  pressures  acting  on 
the  fluids  in  the  hydraulic  cylinders. 

The  air  control  is  a  development  of  the  former 
apparatus,  and  its  object  is  to  produce  greater 
activity  in  turning  on  or  off  the  source  of  power 
and  thereby  speed  up  the  movement  of  valves 
passing  through  a  long  distance  of  travel,  as  in 
the  case  of  large  gate  valves  which  are  usually 
employed  in  connection  with  these  systems. 

The  air  controlling  valves,  Fig.  55,  are 
actuated  from  a  constant  speed  shaft,  which  car- 


162 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


ries  a  series  of  cams,  of  which  there  is  one  for 
each  valve  to  be  operated.  Each  of  the  valves 
on  the  gasmaking  apparatus  are  self-closing, 
with  the  exception  of  the  stack  valve,  in  the  sense 
that  the  operating  levers  1,  Fig.  56,  are  provided 


with  weights  2,  which  force  down  the  rods  3 
when  the  upward  pressure  is  released.  Attached 
to  each  lever  there  is  fluid  cylinder  and  piston  4 
connected  by  a  pipe  5  to  a  reservoir  6.  These 
pipes  have  interposed  in  them  a  valve  7,  the  stem 
of  which  is  connected  with  levers  8,  pivoted  at  9, 
and  have  their  ends  10  in  range  of  the  cams. 
When,  the  valves  7  are  in  the  position  shown 
in  Fig.  55,  they  correspond  to  the  position  of 
the  lever  8,  shown  in  Fig.  56,  so  that  the  pipe  11' 
is  in  communication  by  means  of  port  12  with 
the  exhaust  pipe  13,  but  when  the  end  of  the 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


163 


164  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

lever  is  raised  the  pipe  11  is  put  into  communi- 
cation with  11',  which  leads  to  the  reservoir  6, 
which  in  turn  communicates  with  the  cylinder 
and  pistons  4  of  the  apparatus  valves. 

The  method  of  control  of  one  valve  is  similar 
in  all  the  valves  associated  with  the  apparatus, 
and  the  description  may,  therefore,  be  confined 
to  one.  When  the  end  14  of  the  cam  collides 
with  the  end  10  of  the  lever  8,  it  opens  the 
valve  7,  which  causes  a  pressure  of  air  to  flow 
from  a  compression  tank  by  way  of  11  and  11', 
and  into  reservoir  6,  where  it  acts  on  the  fluid 
and  causes  it  to  flow  through  the  check  valve  15 
and  lift  the  piston  4,  connected  to  the  lever  1, 
which  actuates  the  apparatus  valves  through 
rod  3.  At  the  end  of  the  given  period  the  action 
of  the  cam  on  the  point  10  ceases,  and  the  spring 
16  pulls  down  the  lever  and  breaks  the  com- 
munication of  valve  7  with  pipe  11',  and  allows 
the  air  in  reservoir  6  to  escape  through  pipe  13. 
This  action  causes  the  weight  2  to  move  the  pis- 
ton downwards  and  close  the  gasmaking  appa- 
ratus valves  at  the  desired  time  as  predetermined 
by  the  length  of  the  cam,  which  is  adjustable  at 
each  of  the  ends  14  and  17  by  means  of  a  slot  and 
pin  connection. 

The  shaft  18  controls  the  operation  on  a  cycle, 
according  to  its  speed  of  rotation,  and  is  driven 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


165 


166 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


by  a  clockwork  arrangement.  This  consists  of 
a  gear  19,  Figs.  56  and  57,  connected  with  the 
clockwork,  and  a  weighted  lever  20,  which  is 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  167 

adapted  when  released  to  arrest  the  pendulum  21 
out  of  the  plumb  and  stop  the  clockwork,  and 
also  when  restrained  by  the  cord,  it  is  adapted 
to  free  the  pendulum  and  consequently  let  it 
swing  and  oscillate.  A  governor  is  also  provided 
to  keep  the  shaft  at  normal  speed,  and  consists 
of  pivotal  arms  23,  Fig.  58,  which  at  normal 
speed  clears  the  projections  24,  as  illustrated  by 
dotted  lines,  but  which,  at  an  increase  in  speed, 
strikes  the  projection  and  arrests  the  clockwork. 
The  arms  constituting  the  governor  are  adjusta- 
ble by  winding  the  shaft  25  of  the  clockwork. 

CHAPTER  X. 

CONSTRUCTION  DEVELOPMENTS. 

VALVE  MECHANISM. 

In  the  previous  descriptions  of  automatic 
operation  it  is  obvious  that  the  apparatus  illus- 
trated constitute  three  distinct  principles  of  con- 
trol, from  which  a  variety  of  modifications  may 
arise,  to  be  especially  adaptable  to  any  one  par- 
ticular design  of  apparatus  valves.  In  the  elec- 
trical and  mechanical  arrangements,  the  valves 
used  are  of  the  rotary  and  angle  types,  inasmuch 
as  these  valves  move  through  the  smallest  dis- 
tance of  travel  in  opening  and  closing,  and 


168  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

thereby  effect  a  most  rapid  opening  and  closing 
of  the  connections  associated  therewith,  whilst 
at  the  same  time  the  valves  are  equally  bal- 
anced for  movement  in  either  direction.  In  the 
hydraulic  and  air  system  of  control  it  is  evident 
that  the  action  is  especially  adaptable  to  valves 
of  the  slide  variety,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
primary  object  is  to  effect  a  rapid  action  on 
valves  passing  through  a  long  distance  of  travel 
by  the  movement  of  an  air  or  hydraulic  valve, 
which  is  comparatively  smaller,  and  thereby 
only  need  move  through  a  short  distance  in  order 
to  apply  the  power  to  the  apparatus  valves. 

It  has  been  claimed,  however,  that  the  air 
and  hydraulic  systems  are  more  adaptable  to 
machines  already  in  operation  by  manual  labor, 
inasmuch  as  the  slide  valve  is  almost  universally 
adopted  in  these  plants,  and  that  by  applying 
the  automatic  operation  to  apparatus  without 
the  substitution  of  a  different  type  of  valve,  a 
less  outlay  of  capital  will  be  needed.  Whilst 
this  claim  may  carry  some  weight  with  those 
unskilled  in  the  art,  it  is  clear  to  the  technical 
man  that  the  efficiency  of  the  mechanical  or 
electrical  operation  on  the  valves  illustrated  is 
much  greater  than  the  hydraulic  or  air  systems 
on  the  slide  valve,  and  would  more  than  compen- 
sate the  outlay  of  capital  in  substituting  types 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  169 

of  valves  especially  suitable  to  automatic  opera- 
tion. It  is  clear,  however,  that  the  mechanical 
means  is  equally  adaptable  to  valves  of  the  slide 
variety,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  power  can 
be  made  to  act  in  either  a  vertical  or  horizontal 
plane,  whilst  positive  action  is  assured  at  all 
times.  A  convenient  and  substantial  mechanical 
arrangement  applicable  to  valves  of  the  slide 
variety  would  be  to  provide  a  shaft  running  at 
constant  speed  in  accordance  with  the  cycle,  and 
connected  to  the  rack  of  the  slide  valve  by  means 
of  gear  wheels,  which  are  put  into  communica- 
tion at  the  required  time  by  sliding  pinions  actu- 
ated by  a  lever  or  grooved  cam.  In  this  way  a 
rapid  action  would  be  obtained  on  the  valves, 
and  such  could  be  opened  at  any  desired -speed, 
according  to  the  speed  of  the  shaft  and  size  of 
the  pinions.  In  the  writer's  opinion,  however, 
the  slide  valve  is  not  to  be  recommended  for 
automatic  operation,  in  view  of  the  unequal 
weight  in  its  up  and  down  movement,  and  com- 
paratively long  distance  of  travel,  and  it  is 
believed  that  the  valves  illustrated  in  the 
mechanical  and  electrical  methods  possess  a 
much  greater  efficiency. 


170  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

AUTOMATIC  CLINKERING. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  importance  of  keep- 
ing the  fire  in  a  healthy  condition  comes  second 
to  none  in  the  economical  operation  of  water  gas 
apparatus,  and  various  attempts  have  been  made 
to  remove  the  ashes  and  clinker  automatically. 
It  is  well  known  that  in  the  direct  fired  furnaces 
as  used  in  the  generation  of  steam,  there  are 
many  designs  of  moving  grates  which  have  met 
with  a  fair  degree  of  success,  but  in  water  gas 
apparatus,  however,  the  conditions  are  more  dif- 
ficult, in  view  of  the  higher  and  variable  tem- 
peratures brought  about  by  the  alternation  of 
the  run  and  blow,  and  also  amount  of  fuel  used 
per  square  foot  of  grate  area  per  unit  of  time. 
In  the  methods  that  have  been  tried  it  is  found 
Jhat  the  larger  masses  of  clinker  could  not  be 
successfully  removed,  whilst  the  movement  of 
the  smaller  ash  was  accompanied  by  the  removal 
of  a  comparatively  large  amount  of  small  fuel, 
and  was,  therefore,  not  economical.  It  was  also 
found  that  the  grate  bars  suffer  rapid  deteriora- 
tion by  the  heat  brought  down  upon  them  during 
the  down  run. 

A  modification  of  the  rocking  grate  which  may 
claim  to  have  a  fair  degree  of  efficiency  is  that 
which  is  only  moved  occasionally  at  the  most 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  171 

suitable  time.  In  this  grate  the  bars  are  of  ordi- 
nary construction,  and  are  adapted  to  be  moved 
at  intervals  of  about  30  minutes  for  one  or  two 
oscillations  only.  The  period  of  oscillation  takes 
place  immediately  after  the  down  run,  and 
breaks  up  the  thin  layer  of  clinker  so  that  it  falls 
through  the  grate  bars  into  a  pit  from  which  it 
is  carried  away  by  a  worm  discharge  working 
in  a  water  seal.  The  object  of  moving  the  bars 
after  the  down  run  is  that  the  clinker  formed 
during  the  next  three  blasting  periods  provide  a 
protection  for  the  bars  when  they  are  subjected 
to  the  heat  under  the  pressure  of  the  down  run, 
and  in  small  installations  where  the  clinker 
formed  would  not  be  sufficient  to  form  a  layer 
the  design  of  the  bars  are  such  that  they  turn 
over  at  each  oscillation  period  and  the  surface 
previously  exposed  to  the  fire  is  exposed  to  the 
cooling  action  of  the  steam  during  the  next 
period  of  three  cycles,  so  that  the  same  surface 
of  the  bars  are  only  exposed  to  the  influence  of 
the  down  run  but  once  without  being  cooled  by 
the  steam  which  enters  Inmeath  the  grate  during 
the  up  run. 

From  the  previous  description  of  automatic 
operation  it  will  be  clear  that  the  bars  can  be 
actuated  at  the  required  time  in  a  variety  of 
ways,  and  this  will  need  no  further  description. 


172  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

In  view  of  the  fact,  however,  that  the  movement 
of  the  bars  is  only  required  at  certain  times,  it 
may,  in  certain  cases,  be  more  economical  to 
move  them  manually  by  means  of  a  lever  which 
may  be  connected  to  a  source  of  power,  or  by  a 
wheel  suitably  geared  down  to  the  actuating 
shaft. 

CARBURETTING  ZONE. 

In  injecting  the  oil  into  the  carburetter  it  is 
found  that  the  top  courses  of  brick  suffer  more 
rapid  deterioration  than  the  rest  of  the  appa- 
ratus, which  is  partly  due  to  the  force  of  the 
injection,  and  partly  to  the  greater  variation  of 
temperature  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  run. 
During  the  air  blasting  period  these  top  courses 
of  brick  receive  the  greater  percentage  of  sen- 
sible heat  from  the  generator,  and  are  conse- 
quently heated  to  a  higher  degree  during  the  air 
blast  than  the  rest  of  the  machine.  When  the 
oil  is  injected  these  bricks  are  subjected  to  the 
pressure  of  the  injection  and  are  splintered  at 
the  result.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  the 
temperature  of  the  carburetter  needs  to  be 
higher  at  this  point  than  the  rest  of  the  machine, 
in  order  to  supply  an  extra  heat  equivalent  to 
the  "latent  heat  of  vaporization"  of  the  oil,  and 
the  object  of  the  carburetting  zone  is  to  provide 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  173 

means  by  which  the  top  of  the  carburetter  can 
be  raised  to  a  temperature  which  is  compara- 
tively higher  than  the  rest  of  the  fixing  appa- 
ratus, and  thereby  supply  sufficient  heat  for  the 
vaporization  of  the  oil  at  one  centralized  point 
and  enable  the  temperature  of  the  fixing  cham- 
ber to  remain  more  constant  and  consequently 
lengthen  the  life  of  the  brickwork  contained 
therein.  Assuming  that  the  pyrometer  at  the 
bottom  of  the  carburetter  records  1,400°  F.,  it 
may  generally  be  taken  that  the  top  of  the  car- 
buretter is  about  100°  F.  higher  while  the  top 
of  the  superheater  is  100°  F.  lower,  the  gradual 
fall  in  temperature  being  due  to  the  vaporization 
and  breaking  up  of  the  oil  as  it  passes  through 
the  apparatus.  If,  then,  the  vaporization  of  the 
oil  could  be  centralized,  a  portion  of  the  car- 
buretter and  superheater  would  remain  at  a 
more  constant  temperature  throughout,  whilst 
the  centralized  point  or  carburetting  zone  could 
be  filled  with  special  constructed  brickwork 
adapted  to  withstand  the  higher  temperature. 
In  order  to  raise  this  zone  to  a  temperature 
which  is  comparatively  higher  than  the  rest  of 
the  apparatus,  it  is  suggested  that  the  walls  of 
the  zone  be  built  oval  so  that  the  blast  gases  are 
given  a  circular  motion,  and  instead  of  passing 
direct  through  the  apparatus,  they  repeatedly 


174  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

react  on  the  brickwork  contained  in  the  zone 
and  thereby  give  up  a  greater  percentage  of  heat 
within  it.  If  the  oil  is  then  injected  in  a  fine 
mist  by  means  of  a  fan  or  otherwise,  and  led 
into  the  zone  in  a  circular  manner,  the  latent 
heat  of  vaporization  of  the  oil  will  be  counter- 
acted under  the  higher  temperature  and  repeated 
contact,  and  the  rest  of  the  apparatus  will 
remain  at  a  more  constant  temperature  and 
break  up  the  oil  vapor  to  the  required  degree, 
instead  of  subjecting  the  oil  vapors  to  the  vari- 
able temperature  and  evitably  producing  excess 
decomposition  to  a  certain  amount  of  the  lighter 
hydrocarbons. 

i 

SELF  SEALING  CAP. 

At  the  stack  valve  or  cap  it  is  usual  to  pro- 
vide a  pilot  light  to  burn  up  gases  which  are 
liable  to  leak  through  the  valve,  as  these  gases, 
when  passed  into  the  atmosphere  unburnt,  pro- 
duce complaints  from  neighboring  residents.  It 
is  well  known  that  this  valve  frequently  becomes 
coated  with  lampblack  and  tar,  and  occasionally 
during  working  periods  the  waste  of  gas  is  com- 
paratively large.  It  is  obvious  that  this  con- 
dition could  be  easily  and  inexpensively  rem- 
edied by  providing  a  cap  with  an  outer  rim 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  175 

adapted  to  dip  into  a  water  seal  when  the  cap 
is  closed.  The  escape  of  gas  could  then  be  passed 
off  through  a  pipe  in  the  seal  basin  to  the  wash 
box,  or  to  a  small  holder  of  about  10  cubic  feet 
capacity,  where  it  provides  a  good  mixture  for 
an  indicating  photometer  or  for  analytical  pur- 
poses. The  seal  and  rim  could  be  provided  with 
an  opening  extending  to  within  one  inch  of  the 
cap  seating  for  the  usual  pilot  light  to  ignite 
unburnt  gases  during  the  blasting  period.  . 

NOTES  ON  CONSTRUCTION. 

The  engineer  who  is  contemplating  the  erec- 
tion of  water  gas  apparatus  will  find  it  to 
advantage  to  compute  the  cost  of  constructional 
developments  associated  with  the  apparatus 
before  deciding  upon  a  contractor's  estimate. 
Of  course,  local  rates  can  usually  be  obtained  for 
excavation,  concrete  work,  bricklaying  and  car- 
pentry, but  in  the  face  of  this  the  essential  data 
for  obtaining  such  prices  will  generally  be  of 
service. 

EXCAVATION. 

It  will  be  in  order  to  first  consider  the  item 
of  excavation  of  a  trench,  say,  five  feet  deep, 
which  included  the  leveling  of  the  bottom  and 


176  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

fixing  or  removing  planking.  Assuming  that  the 
ground  is  of  ordinary  description,  the  amount 
of  soil  capable  of  being  thrown  out  per  man  per 
day  of  nine  hours  may  be  taken  at  nine  cubic 
yards,  at  a  cost  of  approximately  $1.50,  or  16.66 
cents  per  cubic  yard,  to  which  may  be  added  one- 
tenth  for  the  laying  and  removing  of  planks, 
which  makes  the  cost  at  about  18.30  cents  per 
cubic  yard,  and  it  will  also  be  well  to  provide 
one-tenth  for  supervision,  making  the  total  cost 
at  approximately  20  cents. 

CONCRETE. 

The  concrete  floor  of  the  generator  house 
should  then  be  considered,  and  a  mixture  of  one 
part  of  cement  to  five  parts  of  a  mixture  of 
gravel  and  sand  will,  under  ordinary  conditions, 
be  found  suitable.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
sand  and  cement  diminishes  in  volume  when 
mixed  with  water,  the  approximate  quantities 
per  cubic  yard  may  be  taken  as : 

.75  cubic  yards  of  gravel. 
.50       "         "        »      sand. 
.25       "        •"        "     cement. 
25  gallons  of  water. 

The  cost  of  these  materials  varies  consider- 
ably, according  to  the  location,  and  on  the  aver- 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  177 

age  may  be  taken  at  $2.10,  to  which  20  cents  per 
cubic  yard  should  be  allowed  for  laying  and  10 
per  cent,  for  superintendence,  making  the  total 
cost  at  approximately  $2.50  per  cubic  yard. 
Assuming  that  the  floor  is  to  be  laid  at  a  thick- 
ness of  nine  inches,  one  cubic  yard  will  be  equal 
to  four  square  yards  of  floor  surface,  which 
makes  the  cost  per  square  yard  at  $0.625. 

BRICKWORK. 

In  computing  the  cost  of  brickwork  it  is  well 
to  first  consider  the  lime  mortar,  which  may  be 
computed  of  one  part  lime  to  three  parts  of  sand, 
and  40  gallons  of  water  per  cubic  yard.  The 
cost  of  these  materials  also  vary  greatly  accord- 
ing to  location,  and  may  be  taken  at  $3.25  per 
cubic  yard,  with  an  addition  of  45  cents  for 
labor  or  $3.70  per  cubic  yard.  Assuming  the 
brickwork  to  be  one  and  one-half  bricks  in  thick- 
ness, the  material  desired  per  rod  will  be  approx- 
imately : 

4,500  bricks  at  $10  per  1,000 $45.00 

500  gallons  of  water 10 

Bricklayers'  time  (four  days  at  $5) 20.00 

Laborers'  time  (four  days  at  $1.50) 6.00 

Scaffolding 1.50 


178  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

Two  cubic  yards  of  mortar 7.40 

$80.00 
Ten  per  cent,  superintendence 8.00 

$88.00 

This  does  not  include  pointing  the  building, 
and  if  same  is  desired  a  1  per  cent,  allowance 
should  be  made. 

COLUMNS  AND  GIRDERS. 

On  the  roof  and  floor  of  a  generator  house  it 
is  necessary  to  eliminate  wood  of  any  descrip- 
tion and  provide  steel  girders  and  columns,  as 
the  temperature  of  the  room  and  liability  of 
explosion  would  be  an  incentive  to  fire  in  the 
presence  of  timber.  The  main  girders  are  usually 
about  eight  inches,  and  are  built  in  the  wall, 
and  extend  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  build- 
ing with  supporting  columns  or  angle  irons  at 
about  every  ten  feet.  It  is  necessary  to  provide 
for  four-inch  girders  which  are  bolted  at  right 
angles  to  the  main  girders  at  about  every  three 
or  four  feet  to  receive  the  floor  plates,  which  are 
usually  of  cast  iron. 

The  roofing  is  provided  by  extending  six-inch 
girders  over  the  breadth  of  the  building  at  dis- 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  179 

tances  of  about  15  feet,  upon  which  are  placed 
smaller  girders  at  distances  which  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  roofing  material.  This  may  be  of  tiles, 
slates,  or  corrugated  iron,  and  the  cost  will  vary 
accordingly.  With  this  data  the  amount  of 
girder  and  roofing  material  can  be  computed, 
and  this  in  combination  with  the  cost  of  material 
per  ton  will  give  the  approximate  cost  per  unit, 
to  which  must  be  added  a  labor  and  superinten- 
dence allowance. 

CARPENTRY. 

The  item  of  carpentry  and  glaziers  with  ref- 
erence to  windows  is  subject  to  wide  variation, 
according  to  the  location  of  the  building  and 
the  number  of  open  sides,  and  also  the  supply 
of  material  is  purely  a  local  proposition  and  in 
general  it  will  be  more  economical  to  obtain 
estimates  locally  for  frames  and  windows  com- 
plete. 


APPENDIX 

TEMPERATURE  AND  BAROMETRIC  FACTORS. 


Barometer. 

Temp. 

28.5 

28.6 

28.7 

28.8 

28.9 

29.0 

29.1 

29.0 

29.3 

29.4 

105. 

.820 

.823 

.827 

.830 

.833 

.836 

.839 

.842 

.845 

.848 

104. 

.823 

.827 

.830 

.833 

.836 

.839 

.842 

.845 

.848 

.851 

103. 

.827 

.830 

.834 

.837 

.840 

.843 

.847 

.849 

.852 

.855 

102. 

.830 

.834 

.837 

.840 

.843 

.847 

.850 

.853 

.856 

.859 

101. 

.834 

.837 

.840 

.843 

.846 

.850 

.853 

.856 

.859 

.862 

100. 

.837 

.840 

.843 

.846 

.849 

.853 

.856 

.859 

.862 

.865 

99. 

.840 

.844 

.846 

.850 

.853 

.857 

.860 

.863 

.866 

.869 

98. 

.844 

.847 

.850 

.853 

.856 

.860 

.863 

.866 

.869 

.872 

97. 

.847 

.850 

.853 

.856 

.859 

.863 

.866 

.870 

.873 

.876 

96. 

.850 

.854 

.857 

.860 

.863 

.867 

.870 

.873 

.876 

.879 

95. 

.854 

.857 

.860 

.863 

.866 

.870 

.873 

.876 

.879 

.882 

94. 

.857 

.860 

.863 

.866 

.869 

.873 

.876 

.879 

.882 

.885 

93. 

.860 

.863 

.866 

.869 

.872 

.876 

.879 

.883 

.886 

.889 

92. 

.863 

.866 

.869 

.872 

.875 

.879 

.882 

.885 

.889 

.892 

91. 

.866 

.869 

.872 

.875 

.879 

.882 

.885 

.889 

.892 

.895 

90. 

.869 

.872 

.875 

.878 

.881 

.885 

.888 

.892 

.895 

.898 

89. 

.871 

.875 

.878 

.882 

.885 

.889 

.892 

.895 

.898 

.901 

88. 

.875 

.878 

.881 

.885 

.888 

.892 

.895 

.898 

.901 

.904 

87. 

.878 

.881 

.884 

.888 

.891 

.895 

.898 

.901 

.904 

.907 

86. 

.881 

.884 

.887 

.890 

.894 

.898 

.901 

.904 

.907 

.910 

85. 

.884 

.887 

.890 

.893 

.896 

.900 

.903 

.906 

.909 

.913 

84. 

.887 

.889 

.893 

.896 

.899 

.903 

.906 

.909 

.912 

.915 

83. 

.889 

.892 

.895 

.899 

.902 

.906 

.909 

.912 

.915 

.918 

82. 

.892 

.895 

.898 

.901 

.905 

.906 

.911 

.914 

.918 

.921 

81. 

.895 

.898 

.901 

.905 

.908 

.911 

.914 

.917 

.921 

.924 

80. 

.898 

.901 

.904 

.907 

.910 

.914 

.917 

.920 

.923 

.927 

79. 

.901 

.904 

.907 

.910 

.914 

.917 

.920 

.923 

.926 

.930 

78. 

.904 

.906 

.909 

.913 

.916 

.919 

.923 

.926 

.929 

.932 

77. 

.906 

.909 

.912 

.915 

.919 

.922 

.925 

.928 

.931 

.935 

76. 

.909 

.911 

.915 

.918 

.921 

.925 

.928 

.931 

.935 

.938 

75. 

.911 

.914 

.917 

.921 

.924 

.928 

.931 

.934 

.937 

.940 

74. 

.914 

.917 

.920 

.924 

.927 

.930 

.933 

.937 

.940 

.943 

73. 

.917 

.920 

.923 

.926 

.930 

.933 

.936 

.940 

.943 

.946 

72. 

.920 

.923 

.925 

.929 

.932 

.935 

.939 

.942 

.945 

.949 

71. 

.922 

.925 

.928 

.931 

.935 

.938 

.941 

.944 

.948 

.951 

70. 

.925  . 

.927 

.931 

.934 

.937 

.941 

.944 

.947 

.950 

.954 

69. 

.927 

.930 

.938 

.937 

.940 

.944 

.947 

.950 

.953 

.957 

68. 

.930 

.932 

.936 

.939 

.942 

.946 

.949 

.952 

.956 

.959 

182 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


TEMPERATURE 

AND 

BAROMETER   FACTORS. 

Barometer.—  (Continued.  ) 

Temp. 

28.5 

28.6 

28.7 

28.8 

28.9 

29.0      29.1 

29.0      29.3      29.4 

67. 

.932 

.935 

.938 

.942 

.945 

.949      .952 

955       .959       .962 

66. 

.935 

.938 

.941 

.944 

.948 

.951       .954 

958      .961       .964 

65. 

.938 

.941 

.944 

.947 

.950 

.954       .957 

960      .963       .967 

64. 

.941 

.943 

.946 

.949 

.952 

.956      .959 

963       .966       .969 

63. 

.943 

.945 

.949 

.952 

.955 

.959       .962 

965      .969       .972 

62. 

.945 

.947 

.951 

.954 

.958 

.961       .964 

968       .971       .975 

61. 

.947 

.950 

.954 

.957 

.961 

.964       .967 

971       .974       .977 

60. 

.950 

.952 

.956 

.959 

.963 

.966       .969 

973       .976       .980 

59. 

.952 

.955 

.959 

.962 

.966 

.969       .972 

976      .979       .983 

58. 

.955 

.957 

.961 

.964 

.968 

.971       .975 

978       .981       .985 

57. 

.957 

.960 

.963 

.967 

.970 

.974       .977 

980      .984       .988 

56. 

.960 

.962 

.966 

.969 

.973 

.976      .979 

982       .986       .990 

55. 

.962 

.965 

.968 

.972 

.975 

.979       .982 

985       .989       .993 

54. 

.965 

.967 

.970 

.974 

.977 

.981       .984 

988      .991       .995 

53. 

.967 

.969 

.973 

.976 

.980 

.983       .986 

990      .993       .997 

52. 

.969 

.971 

.975 

.978 

.982 

.985       .989 

992       .996       .999 

51. 

.971 

.974 

.977 

.981 

.984 

.988      .991 

995       .998 

.002 

50. 

.974 

.976 

.980 

.983 

.987 

.990      .994 

997    1.001 

.004 

49. 

.976 

.979 

.982 

.986 

.989 

.993       .996 

1 

000    1.003 

.007 

48. 

.979 

.981 

.985 

.988 

.992 

.995       .999 

1 

002 

.006 

.009 

47. 

.981 

.984 

.987 

.991 

.994 

.998 

.001 

1 

005 

.008 

.012 

46. 

.984 

.986 

.990 

.993 

.997 

.000 

.004 

1 

007 

.011 

.014 

45. 

.986 

.989 

.992 

.996 

.999 

.003 

.006 

1 

010 

.013 

.017 

44. 

.989 

.991 

.994 

.996 

1.001 

.005 

.008 

1 

012 

.015 

.019 

43. 

.991 

.993 

.996 

1.000 

1.004 

.008 

.011 

1 

015 

.018 

.022 

42. 

.993 

.995 

.999 

1.003 

1.006 

.010 

.013 

1 

017 

.020 

.024 

41. 

.995 

.998 

1.001 

1.005 

1.009 

.012 

.016 

1 

019 

.022 

.026 

40. 

.998 

1.000 

1.003 

1.007 

1.011 

.015 

.018 

1 

022 

.025 

.028 

39. 

1.000 

1.003 

1.006 

1.010 

1.013 

.017 

.020 

1 

024 

.027 

.031 

38. 

1.003 

1.005 

1.009 

1.012 

1.016 

.020 

.023 

1 

027 

.030 

.034 

37. 

1.005 

1.007 

1.011 

1.015 

1.018 

.022 

.025 

1 

029 

.032 

.036 

36. 

1.007 

1.009 

1.013 

1.017 

1.020 

.024 

.027 

1 

031 

.035 

.038 

3.3. 

1.009 

1.012 

1.015 

1.019 

1.023 

.026 

.030 

1 

033 

.037 

.040 

34. 

1.012 

1.014 

1.018 

1.022 

1.025 

.029 

.032 

1 

036 

.040 

.043 

33. 

1.014 

1.016 

1.020 

1.024 

1.027 

.031 

.034 

1 

038 

.042 

.046 

32. 

1.016 

1.019 

1.023 

1.027 

1.030 

L.034 

.037 

1 

041 

.044 

L.048 

.31. 

1.019 

1.021 

1.025 

1.029 

1.032 

1.036 

.039 

1 

.043 

.047 

.050 

30. 

1.021 

1.023 

1.027 

1.031 

1.034    1.038 

.042 

1 

045 

.049 

.053 

29. 

1.023 

1.026 

1.030 

1.033 

1.037    1.040 

.044 

1.048 

.051 

.055 

28. 

1.026 

1.028 

1.032 

1.036 

1.039    1.043 

.047 

1 

050 

.0.34 

.058 

Elements  of  Water  Gas 


TEMPERATURE    AND   BAROMETER   FACTORS. 


183 


Barometer.  —  (Continued.  ) 

Temp. 

28.5 

28.6 

28.7 

28.8 

28.9 

29.0      29.1      29.0 

29.3      29.4 

27. 

1.028 

1.030 

1.034 

1.038 

.041 

1.045    1.049    1.053 

1 

.056    1.060 

26. 

.030 

1.033 

1.037 

1.041 

.044 

1.048    1.051    1.055 

1 

.059    1.082 

25. 

.033 

1.035 

1.039 

1.043 

.046 

1.050      .054    1.057 

1 

.061    1.065 

24. 

.035 

1.037 

1.041 

1.045 

.048 

1.052       .056    1.060 

1 

.064    1.067 

23. 

.037 

1.040 

1.044 

1.048 

.061 

1.055       .058    1.062 

1 

.066    1.069 

22. 

.040 

1.042 

1.046 

1.050 

.063 

1.057       .061 

.065 

1 

.068 

.072 

21. 

.042 

1.044 

1.048 

.052 

.065 

1.069       .063 

.067 

1 

.071 

.074 

20. 

.044 

1.047 

1.051 

.065 

.058 

1.062       .065 

.069 

1 

.072 

.076 

19. 

.047 

1.050 

1.054 

.068 

.061 

1.065    1.068 

.072 

1 

.076 

.079 

18. 

.050 

1.052 

1.056 

.060 

1.063 

1.067    1.070 

.074 

1 

.078 

.082 

17. 

1.052 

1.055 

1.059 

.062 

1.066 

1.069    1.073 

.076 

1 

.080 

.084 

16. 

1.065 

1.057 

1.061 

.064 

1.068 

1.071    1.075 

.079 

1 

.063 

.086 

15. 

1.057 

1.059 

1.063 

.066 

1.070 

1.074 

.077 

.061 

1 

.085 

.068 

14. 

1.069 

1.062 

1.066 

1.069 

1.073 

1.076 

.080 

.084 

1 

.087 

.091 

13. 

1.082 

1.064 

1.068 

1.071 

1.075 

1.078 

.082 

.086 

1 

.090 

.094 

12. 

1.064 

1.066 

1.070 

1.073 

1.077 

1.080 

.084 

.088 

1 

.092 

.096 

11. 

1.066 

1.069 

1.073 

1.076 

1.080 

1.083 

.067 

.091 

1 

.095 

.098 

10. 

1.069 

1.071 

1.075 

1.078 

1.082 

1.086 

.090 

.093 

1 

.097 

.101 

9. 

1.071 

1.073 

1.077 

1.081 

1.084 

1.088 

.092 

.095 

1 

.099 

.103 

8. 

1.073 

1.076 

1.079 

1.083 

1.087 

1.090 

.094 

.098 

1 

.102 

.105 

7. 

1.076 

1.078 

1.082 

1.085 

1.089 

1.093 

.096 

.100 

1 

.104 

.108 

6. 

1.078 

1.080 

1.084 

1.088 

1.091 

1.095 

.099 

.103 

1 

.107 

.111 

5. 

1.080 

1.083 

1.087 

1.090 

1.094 

1.098 

.102 

.105 

1 

.109 

.113 

4. 

1.083 

1.085 

1.089 

1.092 

1.096 

1.100 

.104 

.108 

1 

.111 

.115 

3. 

1.085 

1.088 

1.092 

1.095 

1.099 

1.103 

.107 

.111 

1 

.114 

.118 

2. 

1.088 

1.090 

1.094 

1.098 

1.101 

1.105 

.100  • 

.113 

1 

.117 

.121 

1. 

1.090 

1.093 

1.097 

1.100 

1.104 

1.108 

.111 

.115 

1 

.119 

.123 

0. 

1.093 

1.095 

1.099 

1.103 

1.107 

1.111 

.114    1.118 

1 

.122 

.126 

184  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

BAROMETER. 

Temp.  29.5      29.6      29.7      29.8      29.9      30.0      30.1      30.2      30.3      30.4      30.5 


105. 

.851 

.855 

.858 

.861 

.864 

.867 

.871 

.874 

.878 

.881 

.884 

104. 

.854 

.858 

.861 

.864 

.867 

.871' 

.874 

.878 

.881 

.884 

.887 

103. 

.858 

.862 

.865 

.868 

.871 

.874 

.878 

.881 

.885 

.888 

.891 

102. 

.862 

.865 

.868 

.871 

.874 

.878 

.881 

.885 

.888 

.891 

.894 

101. 

.865 

.868 

.872 

.875 

.878 

.882 

.885 

.888 

.891 

.895 

.898 

100. 

.868 

.872 

.875 

.878 

.881 

.885 

.888 

.891 

.895 

.898 

.901 

99. 

.872 

.876 

.879 

.882 

.885 

.889 

.892 

.895 

.898 

.902 

.905 

98. 

.875 

.879 

.882 

.885 

.888 

.892 

.895 

.898 

.902 

.905 

.908 

97. 

.879 

.882 

.885 

.888 

.891 

.894 

.898 

.901 

.905 

.908 

.911 

96. 

.882 

.886 

.889 

.892 

.895 

.898 

.901 

.904 

.908 

.911 

.914 

95. 

.885 

.889 

.892 

.895 

.898 

.901 

.904 

.907 

.911 

.914 

.918 

94. 

.888 

.892 

.895 

.898 

.901 

.904 

.907 

.911 

.914 

.918 

.921 

93. 

.891 

.895 

.898 

.901 

.904 

.907 

.910 

.914 

.918 

.921 

.924 

92. 

.894 

.898 

.902 

.904 

.907 

.910 

.914 

.917 

.921 

.924 

.928 

91. 

.898 

.902 

.905 

.908 

.911 

.914 

.917 

.921 

.924 

.928 

.931 

90. 

.901 

.905 

.908 

.911 

.914 

.917 

.920 

.924 

.927 

.931 

.934 

89. 

.904 

.907 

.910 

.914 

.917 

.920 

.923 

.927 

.931 

.934 

.937 

88. 

.907 

.910 

.913 

.917 

.920 

.923 

.926 

.930 

.934 

.937 

.940 

87. 

.910 

.913 

.916 

.920 

.923 

.926 

.929 

.933 

.937 

.940 

.943 

86. 

.913 

.916 

.919 

.923 

.926 

.929 

.932 

.936 

.940 

.943 

.946 

85. 

.916 

.919 

.922 

.926 

.929 

.932 

.936 

.939 

.943 

.946 

.949 

84. 

.919 

.922 

.925 

.928 

.932 

.935 

.939 

.942 

.946 

.949 

.952 

83. 

.921 

.924 

.928 

.931 

.935 

.938 

.942 

.945 

.949 

.952 

.955 

82. 

.924 

.927 

.931 

.934 

.937 

.941 

.945 

.948 

.951 

.954 

.958 

81. 

.927 

.930 

.934 

.937 

.940 

.944 

.948 

.951 

.954 

.957 

.960 

80. 

.930 

.933 

.937 

.940 

.943 

.946 

.950 

.954 

.957 

.960 

.963 

79. 

.933 

.936 

.939 

.943 

.946 

.949 

.953 

.956 

.960 

.963 

.967 

78. 

.936 

.939 

.942 

.946 

.949 

.952 

.956 

.959 

.962 

.966 

.969 

77. 

.938 

.942 

.945 

.948 

.951 

.955 

.958 

.962 

.965 

.968 

.972 

76. 

.941 

.944 

.948 

.951 

.954 

.958 

.961 

.964 

.968 

.971 

.975 

75. 

.943 

.947 

.950 

.954 

.957 

.960 

.963 

.967 

.971 

.974 

.978 

74. 

.947 

.950 

.953 

.957 

.960 

.963 

.966 

.970 

.973 

.977 

.980 

73. 

.949 

.953 

.956 

.960 

.963 

.966 

.969 

.972 

.976 

.980 

.983 

72. 

.952 

.955 

.959 

.962 

.965 

.968 

.972 

.975 

.979 

.982 

.986 

71. 

.954 

.958 

.961 

.965 

.968 

.971 

.975 

.978 

.981 

.985 

.989 

70. 

.957 

.960 

.964 

.967 

.970 

.974 

.977 

.980 

.984 

.988 

.991 

69. 

.960 

.963 

.967 

.970 

.973 

.977 

.980 

.983 

.987 

.990 

.994 

68. 

.962 

.966 

.969 

.972 

.976 

.979 

.983 

.986 

.989 

.993 

.997 

67. 

.965 

.968 

.972 

.975 

.979 

.982 

.985 

.989 

.992 

.996 

1.000 

66. 

.968 

.971 

.974 

.978 

.981 

.985 

.988 

.992 

.995 

.998 

1.002 

65. 

.970 

.973 

.977 

.980 

.984 

.987 

.991 

.994 

.997 

1.001 

1.005 

Elements  of  Water  Gas 


BAROMETER.— (Continued.) 


185 


Tern 

p   29  "i 

29  6 

29.7 

29.8 

29.9 

30.0 

30.1 

30.2 

30.3 

30.4 

30  5 

64. 
63. 

.973 
975 

.976 
.979 

.    .980 
.982 

.983 
.985 

.986 
.989 

.990 
.993 

.994 
.996 

.997 
1.000 

1.000 
1.003 

1.004 
1.006 

1.008 
1  010 

62. 

.978 

.981 

.985 

.988 

.991 

.995 

.999 

1.002 

1.006 

1.009 

1.013 

61. 

.981 

.984 

.987 

.991 

.994 

.998 

1.001 

1.004 

1.008 

1.011 

1.015 

60. 

.983 

.986 

.990 

.993 

.997 

1.000 

1.004 

1.007 

1.010 

1.014 

1.017 

59. 

.986 

.989 

.992 

.995 

.999 

1.003 

1.006 

1.010 

1.013 

1.016 

1.020 

58. 

.988 

.992 

.995 

.998 

1.002 

1.005 

1.009 

1.012 

1.016 

1.019 

1.023 

57. 

.991 

.994 

.997 

1.000 

1.004 

1.007 

1.011 

1.014 

1.018 

1.021 

1.025 

56. 

.993 

.996 

1.000 

1.003 

1.007 

1.010 

1.014 

1.017 

1.021 

1.024 

1.028 

55. 

.996 

.999 

1.002 

1.006 

1.009 

1.013 

1.016 

1.020 

1.023 

1.027 

1.030 

54. 

.998 

1.001 

1.005 

1.008 

1.012 

1.015 

1.019 

1.022 

1.026 

1.029 

1.033 

53. 

1.000 

1.004 

1.007 

1.011 

1.014 

1.018 

1.021 

1.025 

1.028 

1.031 

1.035 

52. 

1.003 

1.006 

1.010 

1.013 

1.017 

1.020 

1.024 

1.027 

1.031 

1.034 

1.038 

51. 

1.005 

1.009 

1.012 

1.016 

1.019 

1.023 

1.026 

1.030 

1.033 

1.037 

1.040 

50. 

1.008 

1.011 

1.015 

1.018 

1.022 

1.025 

1.029 

1.032 

1.036 

1.039 

1.043 

49. 

1.010 

1.014 

1.017 

1.021 

1.024 

1.028 

1.031 

1.035 

1.038 

1.042 

1.045 

48. 

1.013 

1.016 

1.020 

1.023 

1.027 

1.030 

1.034 

1.037 

1.041 

1.044 

1.048 

47. 

1.015 

1.019 

1.022 

1.026 

1.029 

1.032 

1.030 

1.040 

1.045 

1.047 

1.050 

46. 

1.018 

1.021 

1.025 

1.028 

1.032 

1.035 

1.039 

1.042 

1.046 

1.049 

1.063 

45. 

1  090 

1  024 

1  027 

1  031 

1  034 

1.038 

1.041 

1  045 

1  048 

1  052 

1  056 

44. 

1.022 

1.026 

1.029 

1.033 

1.036 

1.040 

1.043 

1.047 

1.050 

1.054 

1.058 

43. 

1.025 

1.029 

1.082 

1.036 

1.039 

1.043 

1.046 

1.050 

1.053 

1.057 

1.060 

42. 

1.027 

1.031 

1.034 

1.038 

1.041 

1.045 

1.048 

1.052 

1.055 

1.069 

1.063 

41. 

1.030 

1.032 

1.037 

1.041 

1.044 

1.048 

1.051 

1.055 

1.058 

1.062 

1.065 

40. 

1.032 

1.036 

1.039 

1.043 

1.046 

1.050 

1.054 

1.057 

1.060 

1.064 

1.068 

39. 

1.035 

1.039 

1.042 

1.045 

1.049 

1.053 

1.056 

1.059 

1.063 

1.066 

1.070 

38. 

1.037 

1.041 

1.044 

1.048 

1.051 

1.055 

1.058 

1.062 

1.065 

1.069 

1.073 

37. 

1.039 

1.043 

1.046 

1.050 

1.053 

1.057 

1.060 

1.064 

1.068 

1.072 

1.076 

36. 

1.042 

1.045 

1.049 

1.052 

1.066 

1.060 

1.063 

1.067 

1.071 

1.074 

1.078 

35. 

1.044 

1.048 

1.051 

1.055 

1.058 

1.0C2 

1.065 

1.069 

1.073 

1.076 

1.081 

34. 

1.047 

1.050 

1.054 

1.057 

1.061 

1.064 

1.068 

1.072 

1.075 

1.079 

1.083 

33. 

1.049 

1.053 

1.056 

1.060 

.063 

1.067 

1.070 

1.074 

1.078 

1.082 

1.086 

32. 

1.051 

1.055 

1.068 

1.062 

.066 

1.069 

1.073 

1.077 

1.081 

1.085 

1.089 

31. 

1.054 

1.057 

1.061 

1.064 

.068 

1.072 

1.075 

1.079 

1.083 

1.087 

1.091 

30. 

1.056 

1.060 

1.063 

1.067 

.071 

1.074 

1.078 

1.082 

1.086 

1.090 

1.094 

29. 

1.058 

1.062 

1.065 

1.069 

.073 

1.076 

1.080 

1.084 

1.088 

1.09-2 

1.006 

28. 

1.061 

1.065 

1.068 

1.072 

.075 

1.079 

1.083 

1.087 

1.091 

1.093 

1.099 

27. 

1.063 

1.067 

1.070 

1.074 

.078 

1.082 

1.086 

1.090 

1.094 

1.098 

1.102 

26. 

1.066 

1.069 

1.073 

1.077 

.080 

1.084 

1.088 

1.092 

1.096 

1.100 

1.104 

25. 

1.068 

1.072 

1.075 

1.079 

.083 

1.086 

1.090 

1.094 

1.098 

1.102 

1.106 

24. 

1.071 

1.074 

1.078 

1.081 

.085 

1.089 

1.093 

1.097 

1.101 

1.105 

1.109 

23. 

1.073 

1.076 

1.080 

1.084 

.088 

1.092 

1.095 

1.099 

1.103 

1.107 

l.lll 

186 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


BAROMETER.—  (Continued..) 

Temp.  29.5      29.6      29.7      29.8      29.9      30.0      30.1      30.2      30.3      30.4 

30.5 

22. 

.075    1.079    1.083    1.086    1.090    1.094    1.098    1.102 

.106    1.110    ] 

L.114 

21. 

.078    1.081 

.085    1.089    1.093     1.096     1.100    1.104 

.108    1.112    ] 

L.116 

20. 

.060    1.084 

.087    1.091    1.095    1.099    1.103    1.107 

.111    1.115    ] 

L.118 

19. 

.083 

.087 

.090    1.093    1.098    1.102    1.106    1.110 

.114    1.118    1.121 

18. 

.085 

.089 

.093    1.097    1.100 

.104    1.108    1.112 

.116    1.120 

L.124 

17. 

.088 

.091 

.095    1.099    1.102 

.106     1.110    1.114 

.118    1.122 

L.126 

16. 

.090 

.094 

.099 

.101    1.105 

.109     1.113     1.117 

.121    1.125    1.129 

15. 

.092 

.096 

.100 

.103    1.107 

.111     1.115     1.119 

.123    1.127    1.131 

14. 

.095 

.099 

.102 

L.106    1.110 

.114     1.117     1.121 

.125    1.129    1.133 

13. 

.097 

.101 

.105 

.109    1.112 

.116     1.120    1.124 

.128    1.132    1.136 

12. 

.100 

.103 

.107 

.111    1.115 

.119     1.122     1.126 

.130    1.134    1.138 

11. 

.102 

.106 

.110 

.114    1.117 

.121    1.125    1  129 

133    1  137 

141 

10. 

.105 

.108 

.112 

.116    1.120 

.123    1.127    1.131 

.135    1.139 

L.143 

9. 

.107 

.111 

.114 

.118    1.122 

.126    1.130    1.133 

.137    1.141 

1.145 

8. 

.109 

.113 

.117 

.121    1.125 

.128    1.132    1.136 

.140    1.144    1.148 

7. 

.112 

.115 

.119 

.123    1.127 

.131    1.135    1.139 

.143    1.147 

.151 

6. 

.114 

.118 

.122 

.126    1,130 

.133    1.137    1.141    1.145    1.149 

.153 

5.    1.117 

.120 

.124 

.128    1.132    ] 

.136    1.140    1.144    1.148    1.152 

.156 

4.    1.119 

.123 

.126 

.130    1.134 

.138    1.142    1.146    1.150    1.154 

.158 

3.    1.122 

.126 

.129 

.133    1.137    1 

.141    1.145    1.149    1.153    1.157 

.161 

2.    1.125 

.128 

.132 

.136    1.140    ] 

.144     1.148    1.152     1.156    1.160 

.164 

1.    1.127    1.131 

.135 

.139    1.143 

.146    1.150    1.154    1.158    1.162 

.166 

0.    1.130    1.133 

.137 

.141    1.145 

.149    1.153    1.157    1.161    1.165 

.169 

TEMPERATURE  FACTORS. 

Note:     The  preceding  factors  are  calculated  from  the  formula 
17. 64  (b— a) 
f= —  —  in  which  (b)  is  the  height  of  the  barometer,     (a)  is  the 

460  +  t 

tension  of  aqueous  vapor,  and  (t)  is  the  temperature  fahrenheit.  For 
instance,  if  the  barometer  is  30.0  and  the  temperature  100°,  the  factor 
will  be: 

17.64(30—1.918) 
f= —  — =.885 

460  +  100 


Elements  of  Water  Gas  187 

AQUEOUS  VAPOR  TENSION. 


Temp.  F° 

Mercury  ins. 

Temp. 

Mercury. 

1 

— 

.046 

51 

= 

.374 

2 

-  — 

.048 

52 

= 

.388 

3 

- 

.050 

53 

=• 

.403 

4 

_ 

.052 

54 

= 

.418 

5 

— 

.054 

55 

= 

.433 

6 

= 

.067 

56 

= 

.449 

7 

— 

.060 

57 

= 

.465 

8 

_ 

.062 

58 

= 

.482 

9 

= 

.065 

59 

= 

.500 

10 

— 

,.068 

60 

= 

.518 

11 

— 

.071 

61 

= 

.537 

12 

— 

.074 

62 

= 

.556 

13 

— 

.078 

63 

= 

.576 

14 

= 

.084 

64 

= 

.506 

15 

= 

.086 

65 

= 

.617 

16 

— 

.090 

66 

= 

.639 

17 

— 

.004 

67 

= 

.661 

18 

— 

.098 

68 

= 

.685 

19 

— 

.103 

69 

= 

.708 

20 

— 

.106 

70 

= 

.733 

21 

= 

.113 

71 

= 

.759 

22 

= 

.118 

72 

= 

.785 

23 

= 

.123 

73 

= 

.812 

24 

= 

.129 

74 

= 

.840 

25 

= 

.135 

75 

= 

.868 

26 

= 

.141 

76 

= 

.877 

27 

= 

.147 

77 

= 

.927 

28 

= 

.153 

78 

= 

.958 

29 

= 

.160 

79 

= 

.990 

30 

= 

.167 

80 

= 

1.023 

31 

= 

.174 

81 

= 

1.057 

32 

= 

.181 

82 

= 

1.092 

33 

= 

.188 

83 

= 

1.128 

34 

= 

.196 

84 

= 

1.165 

35 

= 

.204 

85 

= 

1.203 

36 

= 

.212 

86 

= 

1.242 

37 

= 

.220 

87 

= 

1.282 

38 

= 

.229 

88 

= 

1.323 

39 

= 

.238 

89 

= 

1.366 

40 

= 

.247 

90 

= 

1.401 

41 

= 

.257 

91 

= 

1.455 

42 

— 

.267 

92 

= 

1.501 

43 

= 

.277 

93 

= 

1.548 

188  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

AQUEOUS   VAPOR   TENSION.— (Continued.) 
Temp.  F°  Mercury  ins.  Temp.  Mercury. 


44  .288  94 

45  .299  95 

46  .311  96 

47  .323  97 

48  .335  98 

49  .348  99 

50  .361  100 


596 
646 


751 


.918 


Elements  of  Water  Gas 


189 


CENTIGRADE 

AND   FAHRENHEIT  SCALE. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent, 

Fahr.         Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

0    = 

32. 

0 

26 

= 

78.8 

51 

B 

123.8 

76 

a 

168.8 

1    = 

33. 

8  ' 

27 

80.6 

i>-2 

Bl 

125.6 

77 

a 

170.8 

2     = 

35. 

6 

28 

= 

82.4 

a 

= 

127.4 

78 

a 

172.4 

3     = 

37. 

4 

29 

33 

84.2 

54 

B 

129.2 

79 

- 

174.2 

4     = 

39. 

2 

30 

33 

86.0 

55 

B 

131.0 

80 

a 

176.0 

5     = 

41. 

0 

31 

S 

87.8 

H 

B 

132.8 

81 

B 

177.8 

6     = 

42. 

8 

32 

= 

89.6 

57 

= 

134.6 

82 

= 

179.6 

7    = 

44. 

6 

33 

= 

91.4 

H 

B 

136.4 

83 

a 

181.4 

8    = 

46. 

4 

34 

33 

93.2 

59 

= 

138.2 

84 

a 

183.2 

9     = 

48. 

2 

35 

=S 

95.0 

00 

B 

140.0 

85 

a 

185.0 

10    = 

50.0 

36 

ss 

96.8 

61 

B 

141.8 

86 

- 

186.8 

11     = 

51. 

8 

37 

33 

98.6 

88 

a 

143.6 

87 

i 

188.6 

12     = 

53. 

6 

38 

33 

100.4 

68 

a 

145.4 

88 

a 

190.4 

13     = 

55. 

4 

39 

3= 

102.2 

81 

= 

147.2 

89 

a 

192.2 

14     = 

57. 

2 

40 

33 

104.0 

65 

rr 

149.0 

90 

B 

194.0 

15     = 

59. 

0 

41 

S3 

105.8 

88 

B 

150.8 

91 

= 

195.8 

16     = 

60. 

8 

42 

3S 

107.6 

67 

35 

1-52.6 

92 

= 

197.6 

17     = 

62.6 

43 

33 

109.4 

08 

B 

154.4 

93 

s 

199.4 

18    = 

64. 

4 

44 

S3 

111.2 

80 

a 

156.2 

94 

a 

201.2 

19    = 

66. 

2 

45 

33 

113.0 

70 

a 

158.0 

95 

B 

203.0 

20    = 

68. 

0 

46 

3= 

114.8 

71 

a 

159.8 

96 

= 

204.8 

21     = 

69. 

8 

47 

B 

116.6 

7:2 

s 

161.6 

97 

= 

206.6 

22     = 

71. 

6 

48 

S3 

118.4 

7:-: 

a 

163.4 

98 

a 

208.4 

23     = 

73. 

4 

49 

= 

120.2 

74 

a 

165.2 

99 

a 

210.2 

24     = 

75. 

2 

50 

= 

122.0 

75 

^ 

167.0 

100 

212.0 

25     = 

:          77.0 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF 

GASES. 

Weight  of  1 

Cubic  Foot 

in  Grains 

at60F. 

Cubic  Feet 

Spec.  Grav. 

and  30.0 

Equal  to 

Gas. 

(Air=1.00) 

Barometer 

1  Pound. 

Hydrogen 
Methane 
Carbon  M 
Olefiant   < 
Nitrogen 
Oxygen    ( 
Hydrogen 
Carbon  E 
Water   V: 

(H2)  
(CH4)    
[onoxide  (CO)   
3as   (OH.V.. 

0.06926 
0.558 
0.9678 
0.971 
0.97137 
1.10563 
1.1912 
1.529 
0.615 

37.15 
297.20 
520.10 
520.10 
520.10 
594.40 
631.54 
817.30 
334.85 

188.42 
23.65 
13.46 
13.46 
13.46 
11.77 
11.  (W 
8.56 
20.93 

(N2) 

:o2>  . 

Sulp 

>i"Xi'lt 
ipor    i 

Z~   4> 

hide 

;   (CO 

;H.Q). 

(H.S) 
)  " 

190  Elements  of  Water  Gas 

BOILING  POINTS  OF  WATER  AT  DIFFERENT  PRESSURES. 

Temp.  F°  Bar.  ins.  Temp.  Bar.  ins. 

184  16.676  201  28.937 


186 

17.047 

202 

24.441 

186 

17.421 

203 

25.014 

187 

17.  803 

204 

2~).4<>S 

188 

18.196 

205 

25.992 

189 

18.593 

206 

26.529 

190 

18.992 

207 

27.068 

191 

19.407 

208 

27.614 

192 

19.822 

209 

28.183 

193 

20.254 

210^ 

28.744 

194 

20.687 

211 

29.331 

195 

21.124 

212 

29.922 

196 

21.576 

213 

30.516 

197 

22.030 

214 

31.120 

198 

22.498 

215 

31.730 

200 

23.454 

216 

32.350 

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